Monroe & American Independence 1774-83
Monroe in the United States Congress 1784-94
Monroe’s Diplomacy in France 1794-1804
Monroe’s Diplomacy in England 1803-06
Monroe in Europe & Virginia 1807-11
Secretary of State Monroe 1812-16
President Monroe 1817-20
President Monroe 1821-25
Re-evaluating James Monroe
James Monroe was born in Virginia on 28 April 1758.
His parents helped to educate him, and at an academy he learned several languages.
By 1774 both his parents had died, and he inherited land.
James helped teach his younger brothers and sisters.
His uncle Joseph Jones was in the House of Burgesses,
and he enrolled James in the College of William & Mary in June 1774.
That month young Monroe fought with older men in an attack on the palace
of Virginia’s Governor Dunmore, and they gave weapons to the local militia.
Monroe heard Patrick Henry’s famous speech
on 23 March 1775 calling for the colony to fight.
When the rebellion began in April, Dunmore dissolved the Assembly.
Monroe’s friend John Marshall had joined the Minute Men, and James did too.
Monroe in September became a 2nd lieutenant in a Virginia regiment.
In July 1776 Virginia adopted a constitution and proclaimed freedom and independence.
Monroe’s regiment moved north to join General Washington’s army
and in New York they fought the British on October 24.
The regiment crossed the Delaware and early on
Christmas morning fought the Hessian mercenaries.
Monroe’s arm was wounded, and a doctor who joined with them may have saved his life.
Monroe wrote about his experiences in a third-person autobiography.
In 1777 the French General Lafayette joined their army.
Monroe became an aide-de-camp to Major General Stirling.
Monroe worked as a recruiter but got only six volunteers.
In May 1778 they learned that Ben Franklin had made an alliance with France.
They struggled to survive in the winter at Valley Forge.
Monroe led 70 men in an attack against a British army of 6,000, and he was also a scout.
In December he resigned his rank to serve on Stirling’s staff.
In May 1779 Washington commended Monroe,
and Alexander Hamilton wrote about young Monroe.
That month Monroe left the army.
In January 1780 Monroe began working with Governor Thomas Jefferson
who sent him orders in a letter in June.
Monroe wrote back with a report.
His Uncle Judge Jones also wrote to Jefferson about the British campaign in the South.
A British army defeated the Americans at Camden, South Carolina on August 16
Monroe wrote to Jefferson on September 9.
In January 1781 the traitor Benedict Arnold led a British army that attacked
the capital at Richmond as Jefferson and Lafayette fled.
Monroe wrote again to Jefferson in June and sent him a longer report on October 1.
Jefferson wrote back on the 5th.
The French helped Washington’s army surround a British army at Yorktown, Virginia,
and General Cornwall surrendered on October 19.
Monroe was elected to the Virginia Assembly in April 1782.
He continued to correspond with Jefferson, and he wrote to Washington on August 15.
The United States Congress ratified the peace treaty on 15 April 1783.
Monroe and his friend James Madison were present
when Washington resigned from the army at Annapolis.
The Virginia Assembly elected Monroe to the Congress of the Confederation,
and they began meeting in December.
Monroe and Jefferson got to know each other
working in the Congress of the new Confederation.
They sent Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams as diplomats to France.
Monroe bought French books from Jefferson and wrote letters to him and then also to
James Madison who became Secretary of State in November 1784
and instructed Monroe in a letter.
Monroe wrote several letters to Madison about politics.
The Congress moved to New York City in January 1785.
Monroe wrote a long letter to Jefferson when he was in Paris.
Monroe married Elizabeth Kortright in February 1786.
Monroe helped a committee write a plan for organizing Western States,
and he wrote to Madison about John Jay.
Monroe in August wrote to Governor Patrick Henry,
and he sent a long letter to Jefferson in August.
He wrote to Madison five times in September, and he sent a report to Jefferson in October.
In November 1786 Monroe moved with his family
to Fredericksburg to take up the practice of law.
Monroe was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates in April 1787,
though he was not selected to attend the Constitutional Convention that began in May.
His friend James Madison was chosen, and he became the secretary of the Convention.
Monroe in a letter to Madison on May 23 offered his advice
of what principles they need in government.
Madison wrote back to Monroe briefly on June 10.
Monroe noted that members at the Convention
were not allowed to disclose the proceedings,
and he accepted that as prudent because it meant free discussion.
Their friend Jefferson was on his way to France,
and Monroe wrote a letter to him there on July 27.
Monroe informed Jefferson that he had become a lawyer in Fredericksburg.
He has to handle his debts.
Monroe expressed his concern for “the general welfare.”
He trusted the “presence of General Washington.”
The county put Monroe in the Legislature.
He found the governor was thwarting him.
He suggested including the federal constitution in the state constitutions.
Monroe learned that Gov. Edmund Randolph and James Mason
had refused to sign the Constitution on September 17.
Monroe wrote to Madison from the capital at Richmond on December 6.
Monroe was concerned that deputies to the Convention and future ones
to other conventions were not getting expenses covered.
Monroe attended the Virginia Convention to ratify the new Constitution,
and on June 10 he made an extremely long speech
opposing some aspects of the Constitution.
He aimed to examine the organization of the government
and its powers which are the “soul” of the document.
He was satisfied with the three branches of the “Legislative, Executive & Judiciary”
based on “Montesquieu & Locke.”
He was interested how these would affect the confederated states.
He realized the problems of the previous Congress.
He was concerned about giving General Washington “dictatorial power” as the President.
Monroe noted that governments have lost “their checks” and descended into despotism.
He was concerned how much “the powers of the national Government” may be increased.
He noted specifically an “exclusive monopoly of our trade”
and that it was “settled by the Commons of England.”
Monroe reviewed the history of the European governments of the Amphictionic Council,
the Achaean League, the Germanic system, Swiss cantons,
the United Netherlands, and the New-England Confederacy.
Monroe then reviewed the recent history of their American experiment in
democratic
government, and he compared the constitution of the Confederation to the new one.
Monroe opposed giving the general government the power of taxation.
He suggested that the legislators and president may not be restrained by punishment.
He described how the President and his party may increase
their powers to a great extent, and there is
no limit on how many times they may be elected.
The President commands the army.
A foreign nation may influence them.
State legislatures appoint the electors for the presidency.
He also noted, “He is to nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
to appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers, and Consuls,
Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States.”
Monroe apologized for tiring the committee and yet asked for another day.
Monroe in a letter to Madison on July 12 wrote about
the Virginia convention and the new government.
In the election for the House of Representatives in October 1788
Madison defeated Monroe with 1,308 votes to 972.
They campaigned with letters and remained friends.
Virginia’s Attorney General James Inne
appointed Monroe to be a deputy state attorney.
Monroe wrote about the Constitution and new government
to Jefferson on 15 February 1789.
George Washington was elected President, and he wrote a short letter to Monroe
on February 23 appreciating his candor in the Treatise.
In August 1789 Monroe moved to a farm house
near Jefferson’s Monticello home in Albemarle County.
Jefferson returned to America in late November,
and he became Washington’s Secretary of State on 22 March 1790.
Monroe wrote to Jefferson on 3 July 1790 about the state’s debts,
and he became a United States Senator on December 6.
Monroe on 21 February 1791 suggested that the doors of the Senate be open
except in secret session, though they were not opened until three years had passed.
Monroe wrote to Jefferson on June 17.
Monroe published his first article on revolution using the pseudonym “Aratus”
on November 9, and he published two more in the next 30 days.
He rejoiced in the French Revolution.
On 28 May 1793 Monroe wrote to Jefferson about Genêt
recruiting in the United States for warships against the British.
Jefferson wrote back to Monroe on June 28 and discussed Washington’s policy
of neutrality in that war between France and the British.
Monroe wrote again to Jefferson on July 23 about Spain.
Monroe’s letter to Jefferson about Genêt on December 4 was quite short.
Monroe on 8 April 1794 wrote an even shorter letter to President Washington
advising him not to appoint Alexander Hamilton as a diplomat to England.
Monroe’s letter to Jefferson on May 4 was about British issues.
Monroe wrote again to Jefferson from Philadelphia on May 26
with his report on the political situation.
Later in life Monroe wrote an Autobiography
that referred to himself in the third person.
On 27 May 1794 Washington appointed Monroe the US Minister to France,
and he explained what happened in Paris during the French Revolution
as the “Reign of Terror” was ending in July and then afterward.
The envoy James Monroe on 13 August 1794 made a profound impression on the
French when he made a speech to their National Convention
and President Douai that included a French translation.
He indicated how France and the American Republic that he represented
had much in common notably the principles of “peace, liberty and independence.”
He aimed to promote the “interest of both.”
On the 15th he wrote a long letter to United States Secretary of State Edmund Randolph
that included a description of a naval battle between the French and the English.
On September 2 Monroe sent a report to his friend James Madison
noting how the execution of Robespierre ended their time of troubles.
Monroe presented himself to the Committee of Public Safety,
and his letter was read to the Convention.
He declared that America favored the French revolution.
On the 3rd he sent another letter to the Committee that discussed issues
they could work on together such as their commercial treaty.
He asserted that “free ships shall make free goods.”
Monroe wrote to Thomas Jefferson on September 7,
and on the 15th his report asked Randolph for diplomatic advice.
Monroe used his own judgment and was getting along well with the French.
He appointed Fulwar Skipworth to a provisional office.
On 3 January 1795 Monroe in a letter to President Washington
explained the situation of Madame La Fayette.
He wrote to Randolph that the National Convention adopted
the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United States.
Monroe also helped liberate Tom Paine from a bad prison
so that he could resume his seat in the National Assembly.
Monroe wrote often to Randolph.
On 8 September 1795 Monroe received the ratified Jay Treaty with Senate proceedings.
He wrote about that to Madison on October 24.
He hoped to vindicate Mr. Jay.
Monroe in a letter to Madison on 20 January 1796
wrote about Paine who was in ill health.
He noted that Mr. Pinckney had returned from Spain, and they worked together.
Timothy Pickering became the US Secretary of State, and on February 16 Monroe
wrote to him that the French Directory canceled their alliance with the United States
because the U.S. Senate had ratified Jay’s treaty with Britain.
On July 5 Monroe wrote to Madison using a code
because relations with France were deteriorating.
President Washington decided to replace Monroe with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.
Monroe hoped that Jefferson would be elected President.
Pickering did not inform Monroe he was replaced
so that he could not participate in the fall elections.
John Adams defeated Jefferson by 3 electoral votes.
Jefferson being second in the election became Vice President.
Federalists gained a 20 to 10 majority in the Senate,
and the Republicans lost their majority in the House of Representatives.
Monroe wrote to Madison again on 1 January 1797 about his recall.
Monroe planned to leave France in April.
The Monroe family returned to Philadelphia on June 27 and were received
by Republican leaders Jefferson, Albert Gallatin, and Aaron Burr.
Monroe from New York wrote to Jefferson in July.
That month Monroe also explained his innocence
in four letters to Secretary of State Pickering.
Monroe defended his diplomacy by publishing on December 2 his
View of the Conduct of the Executive about foreign affairs
and his mission to the French Republic in 1794-96.
He described how their national honor had been damaged.
Monroe wrote to Vice President Jefferson on 8 January 1798
and again on February 19 warning of a possible war with France and Spain.
On April 8 he sent Jefferson his criticism of the foreign policy of John Adams.
On 26 January 1799 Monroe in a letter to Jefferson defended
the peaceful efforts of Doctor George Logan.
On December 5 James Madison nominated his friend James Monroe
who the next day was elected Governor of Virginia
over the Federalist James Breckinridge 111 to 66.
Monroe defended himself in a letter to Madison on the 7th.
Monroe would serve as governor for three one-year terms
which was the limit in Virginia.
On 4 January 1800 Governor Monroe wrote to Jefferson about the alien and sedition laws
that President Adams had promoted.
Monroe wrote to the Vice President again on April 26 about the upcoming elections.
Monroe wrote Jefferson on the trial of journalist James Thomson Callendar for sedition.
In that spring a slave named Gabriel led an armed revolt in Virginia.
Gov. Monroe sent orders to the militia, and some thirty slaves were arrested and imprisoned.
He issued General Orders as Commander in Chief to the Militia on September 10 and 15.
Monroe congratulated Jefferson on the Republican success
in the elections in a letter on November 6.
On December 1 Gov. Monroe presented his first annual address to the
Virginia General Assembly, and on the 5th he provided a report on the slave revolt.
In the election the Republicans voted equally for Jefferson
and Aaron Burr who was intended to be Vice President.
Because none had withheld a vote from Burr, it was considered a tie.
That meant the election went to the House of Representatives
with each state having one vote.
Federalists and Burr tried to take advantage of the situation; but eventually
Jefferson was elected President, and Burr became Vice President.
Monroe in a letter to Jefferson on 3 March 1801
urged him to adopt “a bold and magnanimous policy.”
Gov. Monroe promoted education, and he wrote six letters to President Jefferson in March.
The Virginia General Assembly voted to purchase land outside the state,
and on June 15 Monroe wrote to Jefferson and discussed how they might handle that.
In a letter on 17 May 1802 Monroe informed Jefferson on the results of the slave revolt,
and on June 11 Monroe suggested in a letter options related
to insurgent slaves including giving them asylum in Africa.
Monroe completed his three years as Governor of Virginia on 1 December 1802.
James Monroe wrote about his role in negotiating the
Louisiana Purchase from France in his Autobiography.
President Jefferson on 11 January 1803 nominated Monroe as a minister extraordinary
and plenipotentiary to France and Spain,
and he was to work with minister Robert R. Livingston in France.
Jefferson also nominated Charles Pinckney as a
minister plenipotentiary to negotiate with Spain.
Jefferson in a letter to Monroe on January 13 told him
to purchase New Orleans and the Floridas.
If the French occupied New Orleans, Monroe was to go to England.
On February 22 Monroe wrote to Secretary of State James Madison that
Napoleon Bonaparte was becoming Emperor of the Gauls.
President Jefferson appointed Monroe for a mission to France and Spain,
and he arrived in Paris on 11 April 1803.
He had no secretary and was assisted by Col. John Mercer.
Monroe had friendly relations with French officials from his previous mission.
This time he needed to negotiate with the First Consul Napoleon.
Monroe wrote to Madison about the older Livingston who was delaying him.
Monroe met with Joseph Bonaparte,
and Monroe dined with Livingston, Skipwith, and Mercer.
Monroe was presented to the Foreign Minister Talleyrand
who let him meet with the First Consul.
Talleyrand told Monroe to confer with Barbé-Marbois, and they negotiated freely.
A war of France against England was expected.
Monroe wrote that he was meeting with Livingston and Barbé-Marbois
who lowered the price to 60 million livres.
Then he told the Americans that Napoleon would accept $15 million.
Monroe knew the United States did not have that much,
and he arranged for a loan from the Houses of Hope and Baring.
Livingston, Barbé-Marbois and Monroe signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty
on May 1 and dated it April 30.
Florida was not mentioned, and the Louisiana Territory was about 828,000 square miles,
the current size of the United States.
Napoleon confided in Monroe and said he sold it
to strengthen the friendship of the two republics.
Madison wrote to Monroe that he was to move on to England.
Monroe met with Napoleon and assured him that President Jefferson
wanted “peace and friendship” with France.
Napoleon agreed they were not rivals.
Monroe avoided taking sides in French politics while he made agreements with Napoleon
who hoped that the United States would be a maritime rival to England.
On 18 May 1803 Monroe wrote to Madison that they should get
from Spain the Floridas which should not cost much.
Monroe wrote several letters to Madison in June and put a long one in cipher.
On June 24 Monroe left Paris to go to Spain.
Monroe wrote four letters to Madison in July, and he arrived in London on July 18.
In August Monroe wrote seven letters to Madison,
and on August 15 he advised sending troops to New Orleans.
Napoleon was bound by the Louisiana deal, and it was to be ratified in October.
Monroe left London on October 8 to visit Rotterdam before returning to Paris on the 20th.
Livingston told Monroe that he had a plan for handling Spain.
Monroe objected and said it was not authorized.
On November 8 Monroe asked Talleyrand to help with the negotiations in Spain.
Monroe and Madison corresponded often in 1804.
From Paris in a long letter to Madison on 27 November 1804 Monroe wrote that
he was going to Spain, and he described the issues over the Floridas.
Monroe wrote a 20-page letter to Madison from Bordeaux on December 16.
Monroe from Bayonne on December 21 wrote to
President Jefferson that he was still not near Madrid.
Monroe left Spain and on 18 July 1803 he reached London
and replaced Rufus King as the United States Minister.
He wrote to Secretary of State James Madison on July 20 and explained
why he left Spain
and described the current situation with France’s First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte.
He suggested that he could negotiate with Spain without the aid of another power.
Yet he also wrote to the French Foreign Minister and to the
United States Minister Pinckney to France who was in Madrid.
In the next four years Monroe would be President Jefferson’s Minister in England and Spain.
In another letter to Madison on July 25 he wrote about the British situation.
He spoke with Lord Hawkesbury who was not very helpful.
He referred to the letter he wrote with Livingston before leaving Paris.
He reviewed again how he had developed better relations with France.
Secretary of State Madison on July 29 sent instructions to Livingston and Monroe
especially in regard to Spain and the two Floridas.
Monroe wrote back to Madison from London on August 15
that he expected to be presented to the British King.
Monroe advised President Jefferson to send troops to New Orleans.
He expected that the Spaniards would cede
East Florida and West Florida to the United States.
Monroe was presented to King George III on August 17 and gave a short address.
The King said he was interested in having good relations with the United States.
Monroe also talked with Hawkesbury about the French treaty and affirmed
the River Perdido as the border between East and West Florida
and that they would become part of the United States.
Livingston had written that he would let Monroe be responsible with the French Government.
Monroe noted that the British would also have access to the ports of the Mississippi River.
United States sovereignty would bring peace and prosperity.
President Jefferson in a special message to Congress on 21 October 1803
thanked the Senate for ratifying the treaty with France.
Republicans in the House of Representatives approved
a resolution the next day to implement the treaties.
Monroe wrote to Madison again on November 16 that he would not go to Spain
until he got the order from Jefferson.
Monroe affirmed the good relations with Britain and noted
that their commercial treaty of 1794 needed to be renewed.
Monroe sent a longer report to Madison on November 25.
Madison in a letter on December 13 discussed some current issues with the British.
While that letter was crossing the Atlantic Ocean, Monroe wrote another report
to the Secretary of State by December 15.
He advised that a war with another power or Russia was uncertain, and he noted that
the parties of Mr. Pitt and Mr. Fox did not agree on war and peace.
Madison sent private instructions to Monroe on December 26.
Madison wrote longer instructions to Monroe on 19 January 1804.
Monroe wrote to Madison and Livingston again on February 14.
On the 26th Monroe sent seven letters to seven people including a private one to Madison.
Monroe in another private letter to Madison on March 3
reported on Livingston’s communication with Marbois.
Monroe also discussed etiquette.
On March 5 Monroe received Madison’s letter sent
on January 9 with a discussion of European politics.
Monroe wrote to President Jefferson on March 15
in which he declined a position in Louisiana.
He needed two months to get through Paris to Madrid to arrange
a treaty with Spain which could take six months.
Monroe wrote often to Madison, and on May 3 in response
to Madison’s letter sent on March 5 Monroe elaborated on British politics.
Monroe’s letter to Madison on May 22 noted a change in the British ministry.
Madison wrote a longer letter to Madison on June 3,
and he mentioned the role of C. C. Pinckney.
Monroe wrote more about the English to Madison on June 28,
and on July 1 he discussed American foreign policy.
Monroe wrote to President Jefferson on September 25
discussing diplomatic strategies in regard to Spain.
He did not expect a permanent arrangement with Britain or Spain.
On 2 January 1805 James Monroe arrived in Madrid.
Secretary of State James Madison sent him instructions in a letter on April 12.
He also described problems with trade that involved Spain and Great Britain
and their colonies, and he suggested what to consider.
Monroe worked with Charles Pinckney in Spain and wrote to Madison on May 25.
Monroe advised making France primary and Spain secondary,
though the French may make the United States compromise.
Monroe suggested taking possession of both Floridas and all the country west
of the Mississippi River to the Rio Bravo (Rio Grande).
Monroe visited Paris and wrote to Madison on July 6 putting most of the letter in cipher.
Monroe returned to London and wrote to Madison again on August 6.
He wrote about diplomacy in Spain and the role of General Bournonville.
General Armstrong was also involved.
Monroe returned to London and wrote to President Jefferson
about his diplomacy on October 6.
Monroe wrote to Madison on October 18 and 25.
He questioned whether they should be negotiating with Spain and Britain
at the same time because they may unite against them.
Monroe wrote to Jefferson on November 1 that he was negotiating with Spain,
and he hoped to conclude it so that he could go home.
He commented on other diplomats and wrote that
he found them morally weak because they avoid justice.
Monroe reported that the French army had defeated the Austrians.
He expected that a coalition of Russians and Austrians would also fail.
The Duke of York was leading 20,000 and was going to Hanover or Holland.
Monroe wrote six letters to Madison in November.
Monroe was in Bath, England when he wrote to
Secretary of State Madison on 10 January 1806.
He approved President Jefferson’s recent message,
and he hoped that would improve the diplomacy with Spain.
Monroe wrote that he was concerned about
publishing his correspondence with Lord Mulgrave.
His second meeting with Mulgrave was not productive.
Monroe returned to London for the Queen’s birthday celebration as Parliament opened.
He recommended transferring William Clark of Massachusetts to Holland.
Monroe hoped to sail home with his family in April.
Monroe sent a report to Madison on 2 February 1806.
On February 12 he informed Madison that the British
had arranged a new ministry after Pitt’s death.
He noted that the British may need to arm the nation against France.
Charles James Fox became prime minister on February 7
and met with the foreign ministers on the 11th.
Monroe alone had a half hour with him.
They discussed the treaty with Russia.
Monroe urged Fox to read his letters with Mulgrave,
and Fox promised he would do so and meet with Monroe again.
Monroe in his letter to Fox on February 25 listed these three issues:
rights of neutral powers, impressing Americans and British deserters,
and the boundary between the United States and British territory in America.
President Jefferson wrote a short letter to Monroe on March 16
and affirmed his sacred neutrality.
He noted that the Republicans had a large majority,
and he planned to meet with Pinckney of Maryland on British issues.
The President signed his Non-Importation Act on April 18
that banned British imports beginning on November 15.
Monroe in a letter to Madison on May 20 reported
on his meeting with Fox who was not prepared to act yet.
Madison hoped they could have an amicable relationship with Britain,
and he discussed trade issues.
Madison advised waiting to see how Congress would act.
Monroe on May 28 wrote “Notes Respecting Our Differences with Spain”
which was not published.
Monroe in a letter to Madison on June 9 reported on two meetings
with Prime Minister Fox who complained about the Non-Importation Act.
Monroe recommended appointing Pinkney.
Monroe advised an amicable settlement.
They discussed General Miranda who was asking for British aid
for the Latin Americans against Spanish imperialism.
Monroe wrote to President Jefferson on June 15 and 20 and again on July 8.
Monroe reminded him that he still did not want an appointment in New Orleans.
He noted that Mr. Fox was indisposed.
James Monroe and William Pinkney worked on a
“Treaty of Amity Commerce and Navigation,”
though it was rejected by the British and by President Jefferson in early 1807.
Monroe defended it in a letter to Jefferson on January 11, and Secretary of State
Madison responded in a letter to Monroe and Pinkney on March 18.
Jefferson expressed his views in a letter to Monroe on March 21.
After the British HMS Leopard captured the American frigate USS Chesapeake
on June 22, Madison wrote to Monroe about it on July 6 with much of it in cipher.
Madison wrote six more letters to Monroe in the next 30 days.
Monroe responded to him on August 14 and included his
correspondence with the British Foreign Secretary Canning on the issue.
Monroe wrote a much longer letter to Madison on October 10
that reported on his meetings with Canning.
Monroe even wrote to King George III,
and he sent another report to Madison on October 28.
Monroe was ready to come home, and he arrived at Norfolk, Virginia
on December 13; and on that day he sent another letter to Madison.
President Jefferson’s Embargo Act was introduce
in the United States Senate on 18 December 1807.
On that day the Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin wrote a letter
to President Jefferson warning him of economic dangers.
Congress passed the Embargo Act on December 22, and Jefferson signed it the next day.
He wrote a letter to James Monroe on 18 February 1808 and admitted that
Vice President George Clinton had estranged himself from the President.
Monroe wrote back to Jefferson on February 27 and admitted that
he was “an inactive spectator” on the upcoming election.
Yet Monroe ran against his friend Madison for the Republican nomination for President.
Jefferson wrote a long letter to Monroe on March 10 about Monroe’s
criticism of Pinkney and other diplomatic relations.
Monroe responded at length to the President on March 22
and defended himself by describing his diplomatic work.
Four days later Monroe sent documents and papers to Madison to be given to the Congress.
Jefferson had decided not to run for a third term because of his age.
Monroe agreed to share his Jefferson correspondence with the public.
The Republican caucus chose Madison over Monroe by a vote of 83 to 3,
and Virginians voted 14,655 for Madison and 3,408 for Monroe.
In the election Madison defeated the Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
with 122 to 47 in the Electoral College, and
Clinton was re-elected Vice President over Rufus King.
Republicans lost 22 seats in the House of Representatives but still had a 94 to 48
margin over the Federalists in the House and 27 to 7 in the Senate.
James Monroe wrote to President Jefferson on 18 January 1809 suggesting
a new diplomatic mission to France and England.
Jefferson wrote back to Monroe on January 28 explaining
why he was not interested in that proposal at that time.
The Congress was considering whether to repeal the embargo
as the opposition was increasing.
Bonaparte having defeated Spain might go after the Floridas.
The United States may be drawn into the European war, and that would
increase the national debt they were trying to pay off.
Without war they would prosper.
Jefferson analyzed the conflicts in Europe.
Monroe in February declined again to be governor of Louisiana, and he decided
to run
for Virginia’s House of Delegates in April and wrote to voters in the Richmond Enquirer.
On 10 September 1810 Monroe wrote 30 pages in a letter to Col. John Taylor that
commented on the Jefferson administration and the rejected treaty.
He discussed his diplomacy with Spain and France,
and he knew Madison had the same principles.
Jefferson was retired, and Monroe wrote to him on December 10
about the Virginia Assembly and river navigation.
In January 1811 President Madison appointed
Virginia Governor John Tyler to the US Supreme Court.
This enabled Monroe to be elected governor again on January 18.
In that position he managed to move up Virginia’s ending of slavery to 4 July 1827.
On March 20 President Madison wrote to Monroe
about an opening in the State Department.
Monroe from Richmond wrote back to Madison on March 23
saying he was interested in that department.
Madison then nominated Monroe to be Secretary of State, and Monroe accepted.
On March 29 Madison wrote to Monroe that he would meet him soon in Washington.
Monroe resigned as Governor on April 2 and reached Washington on April 5
and he started working as Secretary of State the next day.
Monroe now had the same position that Madison had when Jefferson was President.
The French ambassador Sérurier on June 3 began writing about what Monroe
was telling him, and he wrote to Monroe on July 10.
Monroe in autumn wrote to an English Lord about British problems
and their new ambassador to the United States, Augustus John Foster.
James Monroe sent a short letter to former President Jefferson on 9 January 1812
about generals Wilkinson and Dearborn and the military situation in New Orleans.
On February 23 and 24 Secretary of State Monroe
sent instructions to the US Minister to France Joel Barlow.
Monroe wrote to former President Jefferson on March 9
about President Madison and the British situation.
House Speaker Henry Clay sent to Monroe
a proposal for a 30-day embargo on British trade.
Monroe asked the Congress to send aid to Caracas where an earthquake killed 20,000.
They approved $50,000.
On March 23 Monroe sent his plan for military preparation
in a letter to the physician Charles Everett.
President Madison on April 1 asked Congress for 60-day embargo against
the British because of their crimes committed on the high seas.
Monroe also asked for aid for the famine in the Canary Islands caused by locusts in May.
Congress replied that this was not accurate.
On 1 June 1812 President Madison gave Congress a message
asking for a declaration of war against the British empire.
Within two weeks both houses of Congress had approved the declaration.
On June 13 Madison sent a long letter to Col. John Taylor
who was President of the Virginia Agricultural Societies.
Madison affirmed the rights of the United States.
He noted that the Eastern people complained about their rights and interests,
and that even the South was supporting “neutral and maritime rights.”
Madison expected the embargo to be more effective during a war,
and he believed the Union would hold together.
He wrote that if the ports “trade & fight, & fight & trade,” that they will be all right.
Monroe exchanged five letters in June with the British Ambassador Augustus John Foster.
Monroe also wrote five letters in June to the American Minister to Britain Jonathan Russell.
Then on June 26 Monroe wrote to Russell that United States troops might invade Canada.
Madison on June 19 proclaimed that war existed between Britain and the United States.
Monroe on July 1 wrote a letter to John Quincy Adams, the ambassador in Russia.
Madison and Monroe met with forty delegates from several Indian nations
and advised them to fight for America’s 18 states instead of the British and Canadians.
On June 22 riots had broken out in Baltimore against the
Federal Republican newspaper that opposed the war.
Their editorial on “Mobocracy” would be published on July 27.
That caused so much violence that the militia was called out.
Many were arrested, and the county jail was attacked on July 28.
The post office would be threatened in August for mailing the newspaper articles.
Monroe on August 4 wrote to President Madison
that he suspected the “danger of a civil war.”
Monroe wrote to the war hawk Henry Clay on August 28 informing him
that General Hull had surrendered his army at Detroit.
Monroe called this a “disastrous event,” and the Indian Territory Governor
William Henry Harrison was appointed a brigadier general.
Monroe urged the President to recover the land they had lost.
Monroe wrote to Jefferson on August 31 and criticized Hull,
and he hoped it would “rouse the nation.”
He wished a peace would “give us Canada.”
President Madison wrote to Monroe on September 8
and reported about what General Dearborn was doing.
He advised using the “Volunteer Commission under the Act of February.”
He directed Monroe to take command by using a “blank commission of Major General.”
He advised Monroe to cooperate with the Secretary of War,
and he predicted that meeting with the Spanish ambassador Onís would be “fruitless.”
In a letter on September 17 Monroe informed Henry Clay
that Governor Harrison was in command and that heavy artillery
was being sent to Pittsburg and Cleveland.
Monroe concluded with this projection,
If Great Britain does not come forward soon and
propose honorable conditions, I am convinced that the
war will become a national one and will terminate in the
expulsion of her force and power from the continent.1
On November 11 Monroe wrote to Jefferson advising him that
Mr. Russell had returned to New York and was expected soon.
Monroe reported that the British had refused to negotiate on impressment.
Republicans were not doing well in elections in Massachusetts and New Hampshire.
On December 23 Monroe sent “Explanatory Observations” to the Senate’s
Military Committee that included “Defense of the Coast” and
“Notes on Idea of a Plan of Campaign for the Year 1813.”
In January 1813 President Madison replaced Secretary of War William Eustis,
who had become unpopular, and appointed General John Armstrong to replace him.
Secretary of State Monroe in a fairly long letter to President Maison on 25 February 1813
wrote about General Armstrong who was acting as Secretary of War
and as a Lt. General, and he discussed the problems with that.
He recommended that Armstrong should be one or the other.
He noted that President Madison is “commander in chief.”
Monroe wrote how he offered to serve in a “military station,”
and he would be willing to be Secretary of War.
Monroe wrote to Madison again on April 13 and suggested they needed a
“system of defense,” and he advised appointing a major general to “command all the forces.”
He suggest organizing a plan and discussed preparation.
On May 5 Monroe wrote to Albert Gallatin who had left his Treasury position
to be on the commission to negotiate a peace treaty in Europe.
He informed Gallatin that the United States possessed West Florida,
and East Florida was going to be evacuated.
Monroe received a letter from Gallatin the next day,
and he wrote a longer letter to him on May 6.
He provided modest instructions to avoid calamities.
He did not think England would “prolong the war.”
On June 7 Monroe wrote a long letter to retired
Jefferson to keep him informed on the war.
Then on June 16 he wrote to Jefferson again
on the naval force and on nominating diplomats.
Jefferson wrote back on June 19 and discussed strategy.
On June 28 Monroe informed Jefferson that both Madison and General Dearborn were ill,
and he reported on the political situation.
Malcontents were helping the Federalists.
He advised a Senate committee to confer with President Madison.
The War Department was considering a commander in chief.
Monroe as Secretary of State provided Madison with a comprehensive report
on July 12 that included what the French and British were doing.
The Berlin and Milan decrees had been repealed on 28 April 1811.
That allowed the British to repeal their Orders in Council.
The United States accepted France’s declaration.
The United States had been injured by France and Britain.
The war with England did not make France an ally of the United States.
Monroe on 12 August 1813 wrote to President Madison and reported on dispatches from Russia.
He discussed the issue of whether to withdraw from Annapolis.
Monroe offered to act as Secretary of War if that was needed.
Monroe wrote to Madison again on August 30,
and he reported that the British had rejected Russia’s mediation.
Monroe in a letter to Jefferson on October 1 criticized Hamilton’s financial system.|
In November the treaty negotiations moved to Ghent in Belgium.
Monroe on December 27 sent his
“Views Respecting the Rejection of the Mediation of Russia”
to Madison with his own discussion of current issues.
Monroe reported on recent bad news.
On 30 December 1813 President Madison received a letter from the British
suggesting they negotiate a treaty without the Russians,
and Monroe persuaded Madison that the Russians
would not be offended if they wanted peace.
Madison named Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell, who was an ambassador
to Sweden and Norway, and they joined the negotiators in Ghent.
Monroe wrote a letter to Clay on 5 January 1814 to advise him on the issues.
On January 18 Secretary of State Monroe wrote to President Madison
with a short report on the negotiations occurring in St. Petersburg, Russia
and included several letters by John Quincy Adams.
Monroe wrote a long report to Madison on April 14
about the current relations with the British.
Then on May 14 Monroe wrote to Madison on recent loans.
When they learned that the British had ships in the Potomac River,
the War Secretary Armstrong sent his 600 troops to Fort Washington.
Brigadier General Winder removed 250 men from Maryland’s militia from
Washington and took them to Bladensburg, Maryland ten miles from Washington.
In a letter on August 20 Monroe advised President Madison
that the British will probably attack the capital at Washington.
Monroe observed the enemy forces and wrote
about them the next day to the President Madison.
On August 21 Monroe wrote three letters to Madison,
and in the third he warned the President again.
The next day Monroe sent three more messages to Madison
and mentioned about 9,000 reinforcements in Canada.
British forces captured the city of Washington on August 24, and in 24 hours
they destroyed all the public buildings except the Patent Office.
Madison in Brookville wrote a short letter to Monroe on August 26,
the day the British forces left Washington.
The next day both Madison and Monroe returned to Washington,
and the President made Monroe Secretary of War temporarily.
Monroe advised Madison that General Winder had moved his troops to Baltimore.
Madison cancelled any attempts to capitulate, and Monroe warned that
any “deputation” moving toward the enemy would be stopped by bayonets.
On September 1 President Madison and Secretary of State Monroe
issued the Proclamation upon British Depredations, Burning of the Capital.”
Madison designated Monroe to run the War Department,
and on September 7 Monroe wrote to Madison about General Winder.
On that day the American forces defeated the British attack on Fort McHenry
near Baltimore, and the British retreated to Chesapeake Bay on September 14.
As Secretary of War Monroe asked the Congress for a standing army
with 100,000 men and for a Second National Bank with $50 million.
Congress provided 10,000 troops and approved
the President raising up to 40,000 temporarily.
Federalists in Hartford decided not to secede, and Monroe had the militia stand down.
On September 27 from the War Department he wrote to
General Andrew Jackson about the war in the West.
Monroe learned that American soldiers in New Orleans had no weapons,
and in November he sent rifles with bayonets to Jackson and wrote to him on December 7.
Monroe confided in Thomas Jefferson in a fairly long letter on December 21.
Jefferson wrote back on 1 January 1815 with advice and a history lesson.
The negotiators at Ghent signed a peace treaty on 24 December 1814.
Unaware of this, General Jackson’s army defeated
the British at New Orleans on 8 January 1815.
The War of 1812 ended after Americans had 1,877 killed,
some 4,000 wounded, and spent millions of dollars.
On January 27 Congress approved the President using state forces.
Monroe resigned as Secretary of War on March 15, and he was still Secretary of State.
During the war the Americans had increased their manufacturing mostly in the northeast.
Their exports increased to $55 million in 1815 and to $84 million in 1816.
Imports from Britain which had been $16 million rose
to $85 million in 1816 and to $151 million in 1817.
As Congress began debating the peace treaty from Ghent on February 15,
Monroe wrote a short letter to Jefferson.
Also on that day Monroe sent a letter to President Madison on the situation in Algiers,
and the House of Representatives asked the President
for more information on the Barbary powers.
Monroe on February 22 urged the War Department to reduce military spending.
Monroe wrote to President Madison on April 30 with advice on foreign policy.
Monroe wrote to John Quincy Adams on May 11 and discussed the situation in Europe.
Monroe wrote a long letter to General Jackson on December 14,
and two days later he wrote to Albert Gallatin about France, England, and Russia.
On 16 March 1816 the Republican caucus in the Congress voted
to nominate James Monroe for President over William Crawford 65 to 54.
On June 27 Monroe wrote to President Madison on Algiers and Spain,
and Madison answered that letter on the 29th.
Monroe wrote to Madison about the British on July 7.
Monroe actually wrote 63 letters to Madison from June 13 to the end of the year.
In the fall election Monroe with 73 percent of the votes
defeated the Federalist Rufus King.
Monroe won in 16 states giving him 183 electoral votes,
and King won only in 34 electoral votes
from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware.
New York’s long-time Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was elected Vice President.
President-elect Monroe wrote a long letter on various issues
to General Jackson on December 14.
He explained that he wanted the four sections
of the nation to be represented in his administration.
The United States Bank was revived as the Second one on 7 January 1817.
In Congress Representative John C. Calhoun of South Carolina in February introduced
a Bonus Bill to give the Bank $1.5 million for public works,
and Congress approved the bill that month.
Monroe wrote to former President Jefferson on February 23
about a new painting that would include George Washington.
Monroe promised that he would appoint fewer men from the South or West because
people were complaining about the Virginia dynasty that
had governed the nation for 24 of the first 28 years.
He planned to appoint John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State,
and he would keep William Crawford as Treasury Secretary.
Henry Clay declined the Secretary of War position.
Monroe wrote that he would nominate the Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby
for the War Department and keep Mr. Crowninfield at the Navy Department.
Monroe wrote to General Andrew Jackson on March 1 and explained his nominations.
On that day the Mississippi Territory retained its western half,
and the east became the Alabama Territory.
Also the British Navigation Act opened exports from the West Indies in American ships.
President Madison on March 3 followed Jefferson’s policy by vetoing the Bonus Bill,
though Madison would persuade Monroe to approve
an amendment for internal improvements in November.
In 1817 the United States had about nine million people
and would accept 30,000 immigrants that year.
The nation had over 300 newspapers that could be distributed by 3,459 post offices.
James Monroe was inaugurated as President on a warm March 4
and spoke his address to about 8,000 listeners.
He called Americans a “great and free people” because of their self-government.
He intended to “promote the public welfare.”
He admitted they had just passed through a difficult period,
and now they are happy and prosperous aided by free trade with foreign nations.
He recognized the blessings of “the Divine Author”
and was satisfied they had no capital punishment.
He noted the destructive wars in Europe and hoped to have “friendship” with all.
Their war had become inevitable, and he noted the
“heroic exploits of the Army, the Navy, and the militia.”
They had formed a “social compact,” and their government
was elected and protected the rights of every citizen.
He urged them to cherish their Union and maintain their government.
The United States is a diverse land with abundant produce.
In the North they engage in navigation and manufactures.
They balance “national purposes” with the “just rights of the states.”
They only fail when they are “ignorant and corrupt.”
He urged them to “promote intelligence” to preserve liberty.
Their distance from Europe gives them peace.
Yet he believed they needed to fortify their “coast and inland frontiers.”
He talked much about wars.
Laws can remedy a crisis.
He promised to improve their “roads and canals.”
The United States has a territory that is “vast and advantageously situated.”
Government and capital can take care of manufacturing.
He promised to “cultivate friendly relations” with the Indian tribes.
Peace time is good for improvements.
They are maintaining financial responsibility with help from the legislature.
He promised to promote peace, prosperity, and happiness.
He believed their government was approaching perfection.
He concluded his speech with “fervent prayers to the Almighty.”
Congress had increased tariffs to 20% in 1816 in order to aid manufacturing.
Federal roads would increase from 48,976 miles in 1816 to 72,496 by 1820.
The national debt had increased mostly from the war to $127 million in 1816.
Monroe during his two terms would reduce it to $84 million.
Monroe denied that anyone had been deprived of their rights while
1.5 million African slaves, Native tribes, and women were not yet considered equally.
On March 13 Speaker Henry Clay in the House of Representatives criticized
Monroe for commenting on bills before legislation was passed
and that he does not explain his reasoning on issues.
The New York legislature on March 15 approved the Erie Canal about 500 miles long
to connect Albany and Buffalo, and construction began on July 4.
Free blacks met in Philadelphia and opposed plans by the
American Colonization Society to send them back to Africa.
On April 17 the United States and the British signed a naval treaty
that allowed their countries only one warship in each of the Great Lakes.
One year later the US Senate ratified the treaty.
President Monroe responded to three letters from Jefferson on April 23,
and he wrote that he would meet with visitors starting on May 5.
He was planning a trip on the coast and to the West.
On that tour he visited Boston on July 4 and went as far west as Detroit.
A Federalist newspaper in Boston on July 12
called the new administration an “era of good feeling.”
Monroe wrote to Jefferson again on July 27 from Plattsburg, New York about his trip.
Monroe wrote a long letter to General Jackson on October 5 about
his service
to the nation and discussed whether Jackson
had been obeying his orders and about the Chickasaws.
He complained that the Spaniards were injuring them,
and he advised him that he might need Jackson’s services again.
In 1817 Jackson persuaded Cherokees to sell land in Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama
and to move to the Arkansas Territory.
In September 1817 seven tribes sold land in Ohio
and the Michigan Territory and moved to reservations.
Cherokees sold land in Tennessee, Georgia, and North Carolina in February 1819.
After returning to Washington on October 20, Monroe
met with his cabinet who caught up with long sessions.
Four men had refused to be Secretary of War, and Monroe appointed
the “war hawk” John C. Calhoun who accepted.
Secretary of State John Quincy Adams on October 25 wrote a memorandum
with eight questions on foreign policy for the Cabinet.
Adams persuaded Monroe not to intervene in Buenos Aires, though Monroe
ordered General Edmund Gaines to attack Amelia Island off the coast of Florida.
They disturbed an Indian village there on November 23,
and the natives escaped into a swamp.
This would begin the Seminole Wars.
On November 13 Monroe appointed William Wirt the Attorney General.
Monroe wrote to James Madison on November 24 and discussed issues in the Congress,
and he explained the raid on Amelia Island. He noted that Treasury receipts were increasing.
On 2 December 1817 President Monroe in his first Annual Message to the Congress
defended his neutral polices and his recognition of the independent Latin American republics,
and he discussed other issues.
He was satisfied the British were reducing their Navy in the lakes because of the treaty.
He reported on the Bay of Passamaquaddy that was mentioned in the Treaty of Ghent.
He discussed issues with Britain and with Spain.
He claimed that Galveston was in the territory of the United States
because of the Louisiana Purchase he had negotiated.
He reported that peace was preserved with the Barbary states and the Indians.
The public debt was diminishing, and he hoped that would continue in 1818
so that the Louisiana debt could be paid off in 1819.
The War Department estimated that the militia in the states had 800,000 men.
Land was purchased by treaties from Indians by Lake Erie, and reservations
were removed from the Michigan Territory and the states of Ohio and Indiana.
The Cherokee nation was purchasing land in Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina,
and the Alabama Territory in exchange for land they did not want west of the Mississippi.
Settlements were increasing in the Illinois Territory and Missouri.
Population was growing, and capitalists were increasing their wealth.
Congress is still working on various issues.
Sale of public land was also increasing revenue.
He believed that free people are obligated to pay taxes for self-government.
Mississippi on December 10 was admitted into the Union
as the 10th slave state out of 20 states.
Monroe sent General Jackson to Fort Scott in Georgia
and then ordered him not to attack Spanish forces.
Monroe wrote to Madison on December 22 to keep him informed.
Jefferson was promoting a national university, and Monroe supported that
and wrote to Jefferson on December 23.
On the 16th War Secretary Calhoun had ordered General Gaines to invade Florida.
Then Monroe gave Jackson a similar order.
Jackson gathered his Tennessee troops, and by January 1818 he had a thousand men.
In April he was guided by Indians and took over St. Marks
and had two British officers executed.
Jackson’s army captured Pensacola on May 28.
Spain’s Ambassador Onís protested this on June 25.
President Monroe began the year 1818 by opening the President’s House to visitors.
Having been painted white, it was called the “White House.”
The United States in 1818 increased its exports to Europe and its imports.
The United States Bank overextended its loans in January,
and in 1818 most of the 392 banks could not collect their debts.
By July the US Bank had only $2,357,000 and $22,372,000 in liabilities.
The value of land dropped more than 50%.
The US Government’s debt on public land rose from $3 million in 1815
to $17 million in 1818 and to $22 million in 1819.
The War Department spent more than a third of the annual budget,
and Congress began reducing military expenses.
On 13 March 1818 Speaker Henry Clay spoke out for financing public improvements.
Others believed that was unconstitutional,
and the House of Representatives defeated it 45-115.
On March 25 President Monroe sent a message to Congress
justifying the war against the Seminoles in Florida.
On that day he also asked the Congress to recognize the Latin American nations,
and the House stopped that with a 43-113 vote.
Henry Clay praised the new republics for emancipating slaves,
and his speeches were translated into Spanish for the Latin Americans.
Congress approved pensions for veterans of the Revolutionary War,
and on April 18 they voted to close US ports to British ships
from colonies that rejected US ships.
Also on that day the US Senate ratified the disarmament treaty that kept the entire border
between Canada and the US unfortified and the Great Lakes neutral.
In that spring the banks were extending credit on debts using paper assets.
After Congress adjourned on April 20, Monroe left on a trip to slave states
that went west to St. Louis and returned by way of Kentucky.
On April 28 he wrote to Madison on the latest session and the condition of the nation.
U.S. Commissioners visited Rio Janeiro and Buenos Aires.
On May 13 Monroe decided to let Jackson’s army
stay in East Florida until Spain sent garrisons.
Monroe wrote to Madison again on July 10 about the Floridas,
the Indians, and the Commissioners in South America.
On July 14 Secretary of State Adams suggested that
the US should purchase Florida from Spain.
On July 19 Monroe wrote to Jackson warning him not to attack Pensacola,
and he explained at length why.
The next day Monroe sent Madison a letter to inform him about this.
Monroe gave the young Adams some advice in letters on August 17 and 20.
On October 20 the British in a convention with the Americans extended
to them fishing rights by Newfoundland and Labrador.
The US border with Canada was set at the 49th parallel,
and the Americans agreed to share Oregon with the British.
The US Senate ratified these agreements.
President Monroe in his long second annual message to Congress on November 16
explained many issues such as foreign policy especially with Spain and on the Floridas.
He also championed the governments of Buenos Aires and Venezuela.
He described Major General Jackson’s conflicts with the Seminoles.
He expected that Illinois would be brought into the Union,
and he discussed relations with the Indian tribes in that area.
Finally he concluded by asking Americans to unite in being grateful
for “these blessings to the Divine Author of All Good.”
Monroe on 23 November 1818 wrote a short letter to Jefferson
informing him about the negotiations with Spain.
On December 3 Illinois became the 21st state.
Because of the banking crises the former President Jefferson on 12 January 1819
wrote to Nathaniel Macon concerning the situation of the economy,
and he thanked him for sending along documents from the Congress.
Then on the 18th Jefferson wrote to President Monroe.
Jefferson urged him to use four letters by Adams on Spain especially the one
on their right to the Rio Bravo that had been sent to the Congress.
Chief Justice Marshall approved corporate charters in the Dartmouth College case
on 2 February 1819, and on March 6 the U. S. Supreme Court would rule in
McCulloch v. Maryland that state laws could not violate the U.S. Constitution.
President Monroe wrote to James Madison on February 7 informing him that
General Armistead Mason had been killed by his cousin in a duel with muskets.
Monroe hoped that the debate on Florida would be decided soon,
and he had three goals: securing the Constitution, depriving Spain of allies
and “any just cause of war,” and to help the country.
He discussed whether General Jackson might be tried in a court.
Their pressure on Florida might accommodate Spain’s envoy Onís.
Secretary of State Adams negotiated the purchase
of Florida with Onís on 22 February 1819.
All the U. S. Senators quickly voted to ratify the treaty,
yet Spain did not ratify it until 22 February 1821.
Monroe on March 24 published his lengthy
“Sketch of Instructions for Agents of South America—Notes for Department of State.”
He emphasized that the United States was friendly with the former colonies
and recognized their independence as nations.
The land debt was up to $23 million, and 85 banks had failed.
As paper money depreciated, a financial panic moved across the country.
The price of cotton fell 50% that year.
Even the rich Robert Morris was in a debtors’ prison for two years.
Thousands were being fed by soup kitchens in the three
largest cities of Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore.
Many moved to western states where laws restricted banks.
Jefferson in November noted that the “paper bubble” had burst.
The U.S. Treasury sent federal deposits to state banks,
and debtors still owed the government $22 million in 1820.
Jefferson became rector of the new University of Virginia that was supported by Madison.
On 3 March 1819 the Congress allowed President Monroe
to deport “illegal slaves” to Africa.
President Monroe and War Secretary Calhoun led a tour to the South
and the West from March 31 and returned on August 8.
Democratic-Republicans did well in the elections of 1818 and 1819
that controlled the House 156 to 27 and the Senate 35 to 7 Federalists.
The British spent ten times as much on their Foreign Office
as the U.S. allowed the State Department.
Monroe got the Congress to increase the salary of Adams
to $6,000 while his expenses were $11,000.
After the panic in 1819 an investigation of the War Department revealed
a scandal on the Yellowstone expedition in 1818.
Treasury Secretary Crawford exposed the details,
and westerners blamed him for causing the depression.
In 1819 the Congress provided the American Colonization Society with $100,000,
and they began sending free blacks to Liberia.
Monroe presented his third annual message to Congress on 7 December 1819.
He reported on improving public buildings and the financial crisis.
He discussed relations with Spain that led to their selling Florida and the delayed ratification.
He noted that the frontier was peaceful while
Spain and its provinces were suffering in a civil war.
The United States and Britain worked on trying to settle their trade conflicts.
Monroe recognized the depression that seriously affected manufacturing and commerce.
On December 14 Alabama became the 22nd state in the Union and was the 11th slave state.
Missouri had enough people to become a state, and they had about 10,000 slaves.
Speaker Henry Clay had renewed Missouri’s petition on 18 December 1818.
A plan to gradually emancipate their slaves was debated since 1817.
Three-fifths of the slaves were counted to determine representation in the House,
and southern states had added 17 more seats by 1819.
That year Massachusetts agreed to let Maine become a state,
and the House voted to admit Maine as a free state on 23 January 1820.
On February 7 Monroe wrote in a letter to Jefferson about the slavery issue in Missouri.
The next day Henry Clay argued that slavery was a state issue.
Madison wrote to President Monroe on February 10
and proposed a “coupling of Missouri with Maine.”
Monroe wrote to Jefferson about slavery again on February 19.
On March 2 John Quincy Adams began a short letter writing,
“I have favored this Missouri Compromise, believing it to be all that could be effected
under the present Constitution,” and he did not want to endanger the Union.
Clay’s acceptance made him known as the “Great Compromiser.”
Monroe signed the first part of the bill on March 6.
Three days later the Congress in the Land Act lowered
the minimum price of property to $1.25 per acre.
Jefferson on April 22 wrote in a letter that he felt “terror” over the Missouri question.
Since 1808 the slave trade was illegal,
and on May 15 the U. S. Congress pronounced it “piracy.”
Monroe wrote to Jefferson again on May 20.
On July 19 a convention at St. Louis approved a slavery constitution for Missouri,
and news of this did not get to Congress until November.
Monroe wrote to Madison on November 16.
The United States census in 1820 counted 1,538,038 slaves.
In fall 1820 James Monroe was re-elected President with 78% of the votes
and all but one of the electoral votes.
John Quincy Adams was independent and got that one electoral vote from Maine.
John Jacob Astor lowered his fur prices and sold liquor to Indians.
Andrew Jackson accused Senator Benton of Missouri of getting money
from Astor that harmed the War Department and its providing supplies for Indians.
After Astor loaned Monroe $5,000,
the President canceled the order that banned foreigners from the fur trade.
President Monroe sent his fourth annual message to the Congress
on 14 November 1820, and he discussed government,
the work of the Secretary of State, and Florida.
He wrote about trade with the British and the French.
Then he discussed the government of Spain.
He presented details on the finances of the United States Government.
He noted that $22,996,545 was still owed to the United States for the sale of public land.
He reported there was peace with the Barbary powers.
On 17 January 1821 Mexico granted Moses Austin
200,000 acres for 300 families in Texas.
Treasury Secretary Crawford’s Relief Act became law on February 16
that would reduce debts in the West by half by September 1822.
Monroe on 17 February 1821 informed Jefferson
that Spain had ratified the Florida Treaty.
Missouri became a state, and the U. S. Congress accepted
the second Missouri Compromise on February 28.
Henry Clay got a committee to allow free blacks in Missouri
which on 10 August 1821 became the 24th state and the 12th with slavery.
The U. S. Supreme Court on March 3 decided in Cohens v. Virginia
that federal courts could overrule state courts.
President Monroe’s second inaugural address on March 5 filled about 12 pages.
He had much to celebrate, and he thanked the “Supreme Author of All Good.”
A government founded by people was prospering,
and they had survived a war against the world’s strongest empire.
New laws were passed in 1815 and 1816.
The British invasion by 20,000 men had lasted only six months.
“Peace and good will” were bringing about justice.
Government was promoting “agriculture, commerce, manufactures, fisheries,”
and revenue to pay down the national debt.
Foreign parties were being treated as equals.
The problems in Florida were being resolved, and it became part of the United States.
Britain and the U. S. had regulated their commerce in October 1818.
The country was recovering from depressed prices.
Monroe had recommended repealing internal taxes in 1817.
They were taking care of Indian tribes and respected them as independent nations.
Funds were provided to educate children.
He affirmed that “complete sovereignty” is “in the people.”
The Mississippi River has been opened for commerce.
The Louisiana Purchase on the western side and the
Florida Treaty greatly expanded the United States.
Monroe in a letter to James Madison on 31 March 1821
explained how they were organizing Florida.
On May 19 Monroe wrote a longer letter to Madison explaining that
General Moore had not completed the census and was discharged.
Monroe appointed three Commissioners to settle claims with Spain,
and he made other appointments to collect revenue.
Spain had divided Florida into two parts, and Monroe had it reunified.
He reduced the army. James Monroe asked General Andrew Jackson
to govern the Florida Territory in a letter on May 23 that included instructions.
Monroe promised “liberal confidence” and “generous support.”
Jackson retired from the army on June 1 and still gave orders to troops.
Monroe appointed a federal judge for West Florida.
On July 4 Secretary of State John Quincy Adams spoke to Congress urging
a continuation of the neutral policy and respect for independent nations.
Monroe in July wrote two letters to Adams about Florida, France, and Britain.
Adams worked for four years on his Report of the Secretary of State
Upon Weights and Measures for the Congress in which he supported
the French metric system proposed by Jefferson and Madison.
Missouri’s legislature approved statehood on August 10.
The Russian Tsar Alexander I proclaimed more territory in Alask
and banned foreign ships from being within 100 miles of the territory.
President Monroe’s fifth annual message to the Congress
on 3 December 1821 was about 15 pages.
He reviewed the progress and asked the Congress to correct their mistakes
such as higher duties on the tonnage of foreign ships.
He wanted trade to be open to all foreign ships.
The British were restricting trade with the West Indies,
and France wanted similar conditions.
Also he did not want Spain evading their revenue law.
The United States shared principles of reciprocity with other nations.
He noted that the treaty with Spain had been only partly executed.
Monroe reviewed the compliance with other laws,
and he hoped the three commissioners would improve that situation.
He noted that many Spanish colonies in South America
had success with independence in 1821.
Next Monroe discussed the fiscal situation of the United States Government,
and he reported specific amounts from the millions to the pennies.
After the first quarter of 1821 public revenues began increasing.
He expected that domestic manufacturing would prosper more with fewer foreign imports.
Permanent fortifications were being constructed on all the coasts,
and the Navy was building more ships.
Piracy on the African coast was still a problem, and U.S. cruisers had been reducing that.
In January 1822 the U.S. Congress was investigating
documents that exposed corruption.
Treasury Secretary Crawford faced six charges, and John Quincy Adams was accused
of giving insurance companies in New England $5,000.
Congress stopped the regulation of trade by the government’s factor system.
On March 8 President Monroe sent his report on “South American Affairs”
to the Congress focusing on rights and duties.
Chile declared their independence in 1818,
and the Republic of Colombia had become united on 17 December 1819.
Mexico had a new government.
There were civil wars.
Monroe advised measures “in strict accord with the law of nations.”
He asked the US Congress to recognize “the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata,
Gran Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Mexico.”
The House of Representatives voted 167 to 1 in favor of that,
and on May 4 they approved $100,000 for missions.
Secretary of State Adams wrote to the U.S. Minister to Spain that
the U.S. would oppose Spain giving “Cuba to any other power.”
On June 19 the United States recognized independent Gran Colombia
that included Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama.
The American Colonization Society in December bought land in West Africa
that became Liberia, and free Negroes began emigrating there in 1822.
In fall Stephen Austin arranged for Americans to settle
on 200,000 acres in Mexico by the San Antonio River.
Free Mexico claimed California on November 29, and the U.S. recognized
Augustin de Iturbide’s revolutionary government in Mexico on December 12.
President Monroe presented his sixth annual message to Congress
on 3 December 1822 and described the state of the Union.
He reported that at a “convention of navigation and commerce on June 24
the United States and France agreed on a tonnage duty.
The US also negotiated with the British colonies.
A territorial government was established in Florida, and the Treasury was collecting taxes.
He discussed the Military Academy at West Point and the Navy Secretary’s report.
Piracy had spread to the West Indies
The Treasury Secretary directed the closing of U.S. trading posts among Indian tribes.
Monroe reviewed the progress in Florida and on the Cumberland road.
He considered the Post Office Department most important.
He urged an amendment to the Constitution to “execute a system of internal improvement.”
He noted how the tariff of 1816 was helping manufacturing.
Again he provided a brief financial report with a balance of $19,697,929.84.
He hoped for peace with Spain and the independent governments in Latin America.
He noted that a war had begun between Russia and Turkey.
He believed that the United States owed “to the world a great example”
to support the “cause of liberty and humanity.”
On December 7 and 9 Monroe sent three special messages to the United States Senate:
one on copper mines by Lake Superior, another on pirates in the West Indies,
and a third on propagating the Gospel to Christian Indians.
In January 1823 Monroe’s government recognized
the independence of Buenos Aires, Chile and Mexico.
The United States would also recognize Brazil on 26 May 1824
and the Federation of Central America ten weeks later.
On 29 January 1823 Monroe wrote to his friend Jefferson about
his coming retirement after his second term would end.
In February the U. S. Supreme Court in Green v. Biddle
declared a contract between two states valid.
Monroe wrote to his other good friend Madison on April 9
and to Jefferson again on the 14th,
and he discussed their policy on Cuba and Spain and the situation of Mexico.
On June 2 Monroe wrote to Jefferson about the ministers
he was sending to Spain and South America.
Monroe wrote again to Jefferson on June 30 about Cuba, Colombia, and Mexico
and their separation from Spain and how England would react.
Gallatin returned to Washington and was sent off to be minister to France.
On July 17 Secretary of State Adams warned the
Russian Minister de Tuyll not to colonize Oregon.
On 16 August 1823 the British ambassador Richard Rush suggested that their two
nations should oppose any effort by the powers in Europe
to help Spain regain dominion over their former colonies.
Monroe wrote to Jefferson about that on October 17 and to Madison one week later.
They agreed, and this policy of preventing European powers from interfering in the
western hemisphere would eventually be called the Monroe Doctrine when it was invoked
in 1865 to support Mexico’s President Benito Juárez against the Emperor Maximilian.
President Theodore Roosevelt would add a corollary to it in 1904.
Jefferson considered that the two most important letters were Madison’s
two letters to Monroe on 23 October 1823 and to Jefferson on November 1.
President Monroe and his cabinet agreed not to connect this new policy to the British offer.
This policy was discussed by Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.
At some time in 1823 Monroe wrote and edited in 97 pages
what he called “The Genesis of the Message of 1823;
Contemporaneous Correspondence on Its Reception and Effects.”
Monroe chose not to support the independence of Greece.
In his seventh annual message to Congress on 2 December 1823 Madison presented
his best explanation of the foreign policy affecting Latin America
that later was called the “Monroe Doctrine.”
He also warned Russia not to colonize the northwest coast.
He looked forward to redeeming the war debt from 1825 to 1835 when
the “Revolutionary debt” would still be over $13 million.
He discussed the conflict between explorers led by Col. McRee and the Ricaree Indians.
The Secretary of War reported progress in the first nine months of 1823.
Monroe announced that they had established 88,900 miles
of post roads for 5,240 post offices.
His report on Spain and Portugal was printed in italics.
He concluded this annual message to Congress by affirming that their Constitution
and other institutions have been “blessings.”
Monroe wrote a fairly long letter to Jefferson on December 11
about Russia, Naples, Spain, and Portugal.
President Monroe wrote two short letters to James Madison in January 1824.
On March 27 Monroe wrote to Jefferson about diplomacy and on March 30
in a longer letter to the Congress about relations with the Cherokee nation.
Monroe kept Jefferson informed in April.
The United States and Russia agreed to set the border at 54° 40’,
and the Russia’s Tsar allowed American ships to be within his previous 100-mile limit.
On May 21 Monroe sent a long message to the United States Senate
about the slave trade convention they made with the British.
On May 24 President Monroe ordered the Army Corps of Engineers
to construct harbors and dams.
Monroe on August 2 wrote to Madison about Colombia
and a French agent who went to Bogota.
He also discussed a convention with Russia in six articles.
The three members of Monroe’s cabinet running for President were
War Secretary Calhoun, Treasury Secretary Crawford, and
Secretary of State
John Quincy Adams, and the fourth candidate was General Andrew Jackson.
Calhoun was not endorsed by the South Carolina legislature,
and he decided to run for Vice President.
No one gained a majority in the Electoral College, and the House of Representatives
voting by state according to the 12th amendment chose Adams
over Jackson who had 99 electoral votes to 84 for Adams.
Crawford had 41 electoral votes, and Henry Clay had 37.
Calhoun was easily elected Vice President with 182 electoral votes.
President Monroe sent his 8th and last annual message
to Congress on 7 December 1824.
He reviewed the history and the accomplishments of his presidency.
He discussed the public debt that had been reduced to about
$83.8 million from $123.5 million in January 1817.
Negotiations were pending with the Creeks and Quaupaw Indians.
A force was used against pirates in the Gulf of Mexico.
Eleven new states were admitted into the Union.
Monroe suggested that Indians could move into the vast area
between the United States and the Rocky Mountains and Mexico.
James Monroe was in college when he began fighting for independence
at the age of 16, and he was wounded fighting for Washington on Christmas Day 1776.
He became an aide-de-camp to a major general.
He was a scout and led 70 men against a British army of 6,000.
He left the army in 1779 and began working for Virginia’s Governor Thomas Jefferson
in January 1780, and during the war he sent reports to Jefferson in letters.
After the British army was defeated, he was elected to the Virginia Assembly in April 1782.
He wrote to Washington and became friends with James Madison.
In 1783 Monroe was elected to the Congress of the Confederation.
Jefferson was sent to France, and Monroe wrote many letters to Madison
who wrote to him about the Constitutional Convention in 1787.
Monroe worked as a lawyer and was elected to the legislature.
At the Virginia convention to ratify the Constitution in June 1788 Monroe made a
very long speech criticizing the extensive powers of the President, the Electoral College
that took power from people and gave it to states, and the lack of a bill of rights.
When Madison defeated Monroe in a run for the House of Representatives,
they remained good friends.
Monroe wrote about the American revolution, and he celebrated the French Revolution.
In 1793 he wrote to Jefferson about Genêt’s efforts
to get American to support France’s war.
Monroe advised President Washington not to send
Alexander Hamilton as an envoy to England.
Washington sent Monroe as the minister to France in 1794, and he supported
their revolution, worked with the Committee of Safety, made an effective speech to
the National Assembly, and helped imprisoned Tom Paine.
Monroe sent long reports to the government.
President Washington was a Federalist, and he recalled the Republican Monroe.
The Federalist John Adams barely beat Jefferson in 1796 to become President,
while Monroe’s return was delayed so that it would be after the election.
Monroe defended his ministry in France, and in February 1798 he warned
about a possible war with France and Spain.
Madison helped Monroe become Governor of Virginia in December 1799,
and he gained experience as an administrator.
He supported his friends Jefferson and Madison in their work
criticizing the alien and sedition laws of John Adams.
Jefferson had started the Republican Party, and he was elected President in 1800.
Gov. Monroe promoted education, and he wrote several letters to President Jefferson.
He was re-elected twice and served the maximum of three years as Governor of Virginia.
In January 1803 Jefferson sent Monroe on a mission to France and Spain,
and he directed him to purchase New Orleans and West and East Florida from France.
Monroe excelled as a diplomat, and with others he managed to negotiate the
Louisiana Purchase with First Consul Napoleon for $15 million
that doubled the territory of the United States.
Monroe told Napoleon that Jefferson wanted peace
and friendship with France, and Napoleon agreed.
Secretary of State Madison wrote to Monroe and sent him to England,
and he reminded him that he should get the Floridas from Spain.
Monroe spent time improving relations with Spain, Britain, and France.
Madison sent detailed instructions in January 1804
to Monroe who wrote long reports for Madison.
President Jefferson asked Monroe to govern Louisiana, and he declined the position.
Monroe exercised his diplomacy at Madrid in 1805.
He visited Paris and in July sent a letter to Madison using a cipher.
Monroe went back to London and sent reports to Madison in October and November.
Monroe negotiated on these issues: rights of neutral powers,
ending impressing Americans and British deserters,
and the boundary between the United States and British Canada.
Jefferson avoided a war with Britain by signing the Non-Importation Act in April 1806.
Monroe returned to Virginia in December,
and Jefferson signed the Embargo Act on the 22nd.
In 1808 Republicans nominated and elected Madison the President instead of Monroe.
Madison again helped Monroe become Governor of Virginia in January 1811.
Madison nominated Monroe to be Secretary of State, and Monroe began serving in April.
He wrote letters to Jefferson, Joel Barlow in France,
and to President Madison about Britain in March.
Monroe persuaded the Congress to send aid to Caracas after its earthquake.
On 1 June 1812 Madison asked Congress to declare war against the powerful British,
and the war began that month.
Madison and Monroe met with delegates from Indian nations in July.
The war was controversial, and there were riots in Baltimore.
Monroe in August advised Madison of the danger of civil war.
Madison and Monroe worked together on the war.
After Monroe criticized Secretary of War Armstrong for also being a major general,
the Commander in Chief Madison considered making Monroe the Secretary of War
while he was still serving as Secretary of State.
Monroe wrote a long letter to Jefferson in June 1813.
Madison became ill, and Monroe kept him informed on the French and the British actions.
On 20 August 1814 Monroe warned Madison that the British could attack the capital.
Monroe did some scouting on where the British forces were
and wrote three letters to Madison on the 21st.
The British attacked on August 24 and destroyed
all public buildings except the Patent Office.
British forces left Washington on the 26th, and Madison and Monroe returned the next day.
The President appointed Monroe the temporary Secretary of War.
On September 1 Madison and Monroe proclaimed that the British had burned the capital.
On the 7th the Americans managed to defeat the British at Fort McHenry near Baltimore,
and one week later the British retreated.
The Congress approved more troops.
Monroe wrote to General Andrew Jackson in the West
and ordered him to defend New Orleans.
Diplomats negotiated an end to the war with a treaty at Ghent on December 24.
Jackson and his army were unaware of the treaty, and they defeated the British forces
at New Orleans on 8 January 1815.
Monroe resigned as Secretary of War on March 15.
Exports increased in 1815 and 1816.
Congress debated the treaty, and Monroe advised reducing military spending.
In 1816 Republicans nominated James Monroe to be President,
and he easily defeated the Federalist Rufus King in the fall election.
All these experiences prepared James Monroe for the presidency,
and what is remarkable was how these three friends—Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe
communicated with many letters and in personal meetings
to help each other be successful presidents.
James Monroe was the last of Virginia’s dynasty of Republicans who were President
for 32 of the first 36 years under the United States Constitution.
Monroe appointed men from all sections of the nation.
The British Navigation Act passed on 3 March 1817
opened trade with the West Indies by American ships
The next day in his inaugural address Monroe described
the “highest interests of a great and free people.”
He would continue self-government, and he spoke “of the great community of nations.”
British naval policy had made war inevitable.
Now that war was over, and trade with the British rose quickly.
The great agricultural interest was prospering.
He said, “We shall bind the Union more closely together.”
He noted that it was their duty “to cultivate friendly relations” with “the Indian tribes,”
and he promised “to persevere in our efforts to extend to them the
advantages of civilization” that had begun under George Washington.
He noted that “the United States are blessed with peace,”
and that promotes “prosperity and happiness.”
Congress had raised tariffs to 20% in 1816, and he would continue
“to protect factories, improve roads, and build canals.”
It was true that African slaves, Native Americans, and women still did not have equal rights.
Monroe had a black servant whom he paid and later liberated.
On March 6 President Monroe asked John Quincy Adams to be the Secretary of State,
and he returned from Europe and began that work on September 22.
William Wirt became Attorney General on November 13, and he worked with Monroe
on the “Views on the Subject of Internal Improvements” that was completed in 1822.
New York began building the Erie Canal on 15 March 1817.
About 200 slaves revolted in Maryland on April 7,
and many free blacks opposed being sent back to Africa.
The United States and Britain agreed on the Rush-Bagot naval treaty that
limited the warships on the Great Lakes, and the Senate ratified it in April 1818.
President Monroe went on a tour of the northeast,
and a Federalist newspaper called it the “era of good feeling.”
Monroe in October wrote a long letter to General Andrew Jackson to clarify various issues.
After four men declined, Monroe chose John C. Calhoun to be Secretary of War.
J. Q. Adams suggested several questions for the cabinet to consider.
After much debate they decided to remove marauders from Amelia Island and Galveston.
Sending the army provoked escalation of the Seminole war
in Florida that Jackson had begun in 1816.
Each year President Monroe sent to Congress
a long annual message on the state of the Union.
In December 1817 he focused on a neutral foreign policy
and recognizing republics in Latin America.
Monroe ordered Jackson not to attack Spanish troops.
He also urged the Cherokees to sell their land in North Carolina, Georgia,
and Tennessee so that they could move to the West where they would be safer.
Jefferson was intent on founding a national university in Virginia,
and Monroe supported his project.
The United States Bank had its loans overextended in early 1818,
and many local banks would fail in this crisis.
In February 1818 John Adams wrote that the American Revolution had begun
with peaceful reforms until violence began in April 1775.
On 25 March 1818 Monroe sent a message to Congress advising them of the conflict
with the Seminoles in Florida, and he also asked them to
recognize the independent nations in Latin America.
House Speaker Henry Clay noted that those nations
were ahead of the United States in abolishing slavery.
Diplomacy settled the border issue between the United States and Canada.
Secretary of State J. Q. Adams in July advised Monroe to purchase Florida from Spain,
and the President warned Jackson not to attack Pensacola.
In November 1818 President Monroe explained his policies in his annual message
to Congress including the current financial crisis and relations with Indian tribes.
In January 1819 Jefferson advised Monroe
to consult with J. Q. Adams on four of his letters.
Adams negotiated with the Spanish envoy Onís.
They agreed on the sale of Florida on February 22,
and it took Spain exactly two years to ratify the treaty.
Monroe in March published his long
“Sketch of Instructions for Agents of South America—Notes for Department of State.”
In the spring Monroe and Calhoun traveled to the South and West and returned in August.
The Democratic-Republicans did well in the elections of 1818 and 1819.
Monroe in his annual speech in December acknowledged the economic depression,
and he was working diplomatically on improving relations with Spain and Britain.
Missouri had about 10,000 slaves and wanted to be a state.
Massachusetts managed to get Maine admitted as a free state, and eventually
a compromise aided by Henry Clay was worked out by August 1821
that allowed Missouri to become the 24th state and the 12th slave state.
Under Republican domination the Federalists were declining,
and Monroe was easily re-elected in 1820 despite an economic recession.
In his second inaugural address he reviewed his accomplishments as President
including better relations with “peace and good will.”
Indian tribes were respected as independent nations.
Monroe appointed Andrew Jackson to be Governor of the Florida Territory.
John Quincy Adams became a Republican, and he
urged Congress to continue the neutral foreign policy.
As Secretary of State he helped Monroe devise a foreign policy that would support
independent governments in Latin America against
European colonialism and did so by diplomatic means.
On 8 March 1822 Monroe sent his “South American Affairs”
report to the Congress that emphasized rights and duties.
The famous Monroe Doctrine also established the policy that the United States
would not intervene in European conflicts, a wise policy first implemented
by George Washington who warned against “entangling alliances.”
That policy lasted until 1917.
Since then the United States has become increasingly imperialistic in attemptin
to act as the world’s policemen but doing so to enhance its national interests.
In December 1822 Monroe in his message to Congress
noted improvements in commerce and the nation’s finances.
In January 1823 his government recognized the
independence of Buenos Aires, Chile and Mexico.
Monroe explained his new foreign policy in his message to Congress in December 1823.
One year later in his last message to Congress he reported
how much they had reduced the national debt.
He urged Indians to move to the vast area west of the Mississippi River.
Monroe managed to control some violent actions by General Jackson against Indians,
and Monroe eventually agreed to moving some tribes to the West.
During his two terms the national debt was reduced by about $39.7 million.
For his long career as a diplomat that included the tremendous
Purchase of Louisiana Territory, for developing a peaceful foreign policy and
recognition of Latin American independence, for supporting the Missouri compromise
that resolved for a while the issue on the extension of slavery,
and for allowing internal improvements I rank James Monroe #7.
Note
1. The Writings of Monroe, Volume 5 1807-1816, p. 221-223.