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Those who value the world as themselves
may be entrusted to govern the world.
Those who love the world as themselves
may be entrusted to care for the world.
Lao-zi, Way Power Book (Dao De Jing) 13
The strategists say,
"Do not be the aggressor but the defender.
Do not advance an inch, but retreat a foot instead."
This is movement without moving,
stretching the arm without showing it,
confronting enemies with the idea there is no enemy,
holding in the hand no weapons.
Underestimating the enemy will destroy my treasures.
Thus when the battle is joined, it is the kind who will win.
Lao-zi, Way Power Book (Dao De Jing) 69
Never do to others
what you would not like them
to do to you.
Confucius, Analects 15:23
When people submit to force,
they do so not willingly
but because they are not strong enough.
When people submit to
the transforming influence of morality,
they do so sincerely with admiration in their hearts.
Mencius 2A:3
In ancient China during the 6th century BC the incessant wars
between Jin and Chu
led Heang Seu of Song to go to Jin with a
proposal for a comprehensive peace.
He said, "War is destructive
to the people, an insect that eats up the resources,
and the greatest
calamity of the small states."1
Arguing that if Jin did not
accept the proposal, Chu would agree
and draw all the states together,
Jin agreed in order to keep the protectorship.
Then he went to
Chu, and they agreed also.
Qi was reluctant to join but realized
that it would disaffect the people
if they refused to sanction
the stopping of war.
Heang Seu sent word to Qin, and they agreed.
He notified all the smaller states and arranged a meeting at Song
in 545 BC.
Jin and Chu argued about which of them should have precedent but
agreed to share
the protectorship although Qin and Qi were formally
excepted
because of their power and Chu and Tang because of their
weakness.
Otherwise all fourteen states agreed to the covenant
of peace.
Heang Seu asked for a reward for "arresting the
cause of death" and was given sixty towns.
However, Zihan,
the minister of Works, declared that it was
the arms of Jin and
Chu that kept the smaller states in awe.
"Who can do away
with the instruments of war?" he asked.
"They have been
long in requisition.
It is by them that the lawless are kept in
awe, and accomplished virtue is displayed."2
Denouncing the
scheme as a delusion, he cut the document to pieces.
Heang Seu
consequently refused the towns, and his family wanted to attack
Zihan;
but Heang stopped them, saying he had been saved from ruin
by him.
Nevertheless this agreement must have been effective for several
years because
there were no wars for the next five years, only
a battle with barbarians in the sixth year,
and no wars in the
seventh and eighth years.
This is by far the most peaceful part
of the two and a half centuries of the
Spring and Autumn Era during
which there was only one other time
in which there were even two
years in a row without a war.
Lao-zi lived in China in the sixth century BC.
Historical records
indicate that he was the keeper
of the Archives in the imperial
capital at Luoyang.
Legend tells us that when he was old and tired
of the corruption of the world,
he rode an ox-drawn chariot to
the mountain pass of the western frontier.
The keeper of the Pass,
having observed omens in the weather and expecting a sage,
begged
the old man to write a book before withdrawing from civilization.
So Lao-zi composed the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching), consisting
of
about 5,25O Chinese characters (words).
This concise book is
probably one of the greatest writings in the world
and became
the scriptural foundation of Daoism.
It has been translated more
times than any other book.
Dao means the way and implies
an absolute reality,
roughly comparable to the Western idea of
God;
yet it is described not anthropomorphically but as a dynamic
and natural process.
De means virtue in the sense of spiritual
power.
Jing is the word for book or classic.
Thus
I translate the title Way Power Book.
In the Dao De Jing Lao-zi described a simple, natural,
and peaceful way of life.
Serenity may be found by returning to
the eternal source,
by emptying oneself of all desires, and by
flowing like water.
The universe has two complementary principles-the
male (yang) and the female (yin).
Harmony results
from the natural balance of these active and receptive qualities.
Those who are too aggressive meddle in their affairs and cause
unnecessary problems,
while those who are too passive lose their
center and fail to maintain a natural order.
Since the human tendency
is to be too active and interfering,
Lao-zi emphasized the inward
process of action through non-action (wu-wei).
By being
receptive to this transcendental way,
one knows intuitively how
much to do and when to stop.
The primary responsibility of each
person is to understand and master oneself.
Those who know others are wise.
Those who know themselves are enlightened.
Those who overcome others require force.
Those who overcome themselves need strength.
Those who are content are wealthy.
Those who persevere have will power.
Those who do not lose their center endure.
Those who die but maintain their power live eternally.3
Lao-zi saw a way of not competing by not exalting the worthy
nor valuing rare treasure
nor displaying objects of desire so
that people's hearts will not be disturbed.
The wise keep their
hearts pure, their bellies full,
their ambitions weak, and their
bones strong.
They act without interfering with the natural flow
so that all may live in peace.
The way of spiritual power never
interferes or inflicts;
yet through it everything is accomplished
because it is the essence of what is.
All we need to do is to
follow the way things are,
and the world will be reformed of its
own accord.
The conflict of personal desires is what obscures
the way;
but when we free ourselves of desire, then we find peace.
The way that works best for all is a transcendental but dynamic
and living reality,
which we can easily follow by understanding
our own nature.
Lao-zi also recommended following this transcendental way in
political life.
The idea that "the violent die a violent
death" had been taught before,
and he made it the foundation
of his teaching.
Violence opposes the way of living, and whatever
opposes life will soon perish.
The use of force tends to rebound;
when armies march, the country is laid to waste.
Whenever a large
army is raised, scarcity and want follow.
The more weapons the
state has, the more trouble there will be.
It is better to withdraw
than to attack.
One should not under-estimate one's enemy,
and
it is possible to confront them and win them over without fighting
them.
When there is a battle, those who are kind truly win.
A
good leader is not violent; a good fighter does not get angry;
a good winner is not vengeful; a good employer is humble.
This
is the heavenly way of relating with people.
Lao-zi revered the spirit of the valley as the mystic female
that never dies and is the root of heaven and earth.
The wise
are humble like water, which flows to the lowest level;
yet they
come near the way.
In their dwellings they love the earth.
In their hearts they love what is profound.
In their friendship they love humanity.
In their words they love sincerity.
In government they love peace.
In business they love ability.
In their actions they love timeliness.
It is because they do not compete
that there is no resentment.4
Moderation is taught, as extremes of wealth and honor
cannot
be kept safe or lead to a downfall.
Heaven's way is to withdraw
as soon as one's work is done.
Lao-zi asked if one can concentrate
one's vital force to be gentle like a baby,
attain mystic clarity,
love people and govern the state without interfering,
play the
female in opening the doors of heaven and understand all without
using the mind.
Mystical virtue gives birth and nourishes without
taking possession,
acts without obligation, and leads without
dominating.
The usefulness of things is found in the freedom of
their empty spaces.
The way is invisible, inaudible, and intangible.
The wise go beyond the senses and satisfy the inner self.
Troubles
come from being selfish.
Those who value the world as themselves
may be entrusted to care for the world.
The way to make sense of a muddy world is to let it be still
until it becomes clear.
Those who are calm and do not overextend
themselves can come back to life
through activity; and not wearing
out, they are not replaced.
In serenity one can see everything
return to its source
like vegetation that grows and flourishes.
Returning to the source is to know the eternal and be enlightened,
impartial, universal, and in accord with heaven and the way.
Not
to know the eternal is to act blindly and court disaster.
The worst leaders are those who are hated; the next worst are
feared;
the next are loved and praised; but the best are those
the people barely know,
such that they say, "We did it ourselves."
When the way is forgotten, the doctrines of humanity and morality
arise.
Knowledge and cleverness lead to hypocrisy.
When family
relationships are not harmonious, filial piety is advocated.
When
a country falls into chaos, loyal patriots are praised.
Lao-zi
suggested abandoning religion and cleverness, humanity and morality,
skill and profit, and recommended instead simplicity,
the natural,
controlling selfishness, and reducing desires.
Yielding can preserve
unity; bending can straighten; emptying oneself can be fulfilling;
wearing oneself out leads to renewal; having little is to be content,
while having abundance is troubling.
Because the wise do not compete,
no one can compete with them.
Lao-zi observed that those standing on tiptoe are not steady;
those straining their strides cannot keep up; those displaying
themselves do not illuminate;
those justifying themselves are
not distinguished; those making claims are not given credit;
and
those seeking glory are not leaders.
Frivolous and hasty leaders
lose their foundation and self-mastery.
The wise are good at helping
people so that no one is rejected,
and they are good at saving
things so that nothing is wasted.
Thus the good can teach the
bad, who can be the lessons for the good.
Those who try to take over the world do not succeed;
tampering
with it spoils it, and seizing it loses it.
Lao-zi opposed conquest
by force of arms, because it rebounds.
When armies march, scarcity
and famine follow.
The skillful achieve their purposes and stop
without using violence,
which is contrary to the way.
Whatever
is contrary to the way will soon perish.
Weapons are tools of
destruction hated by the people,
and followers of the way never
use them.
Peaceful leaders favor the creative left; war favors
the destructive right.
When the use of weapons cannot be avoided,
the best policy is calm restraint.
Victory is not glorious, and
those who celebrate it delight in slaughter;
such killing should
be mourned.
Sharp weapons of the state should not be displayed.
That the violent die a violent death Lao-zi made primary in his
teaching.
Virtue does not emphasize its power, and thus is powerful.
The inferior never forget their power, and thus are powerless.
The best virtue does not interfere nor have an ulterior motive.
Lesser virtue interferes with an ulterior motive.
Humanity takes
action without an ulterior motive,
while morality takes action
with an ulterior motive.
Rules of propriety take action, and finding
no response, force it on them.
Thus when the way is lost, things
degenerate from virtue to humanity to morality
to the rules of
propriety, which is the superficial expression of loyalty
and
faithfulness and the beginning of disorder.
By attaining oneness
heaven becomes clear, earth stable, spirits divine,
valleys fertile,
creatures alive and growing, and kings leaders.
When people live in accord with the way, horses work on farms;
but when they do not, the cavalry practices in the parks.
The
greatest temptation to crime is desire; the greatest curse is
discontent;
the greatest calamity is greed.
The wise have no fixed
mind-set but regard the people's minds as their own.
They are
good to the good and bad, honest to the honest and dishonest,
living peacefully and harmoniously sharing a common heart
and
treating the people as their own children.
The mystical virtue
nourishes, cares for, develops, shelters, comforts, nurtures,
and protects,
producing without possessing, helping without obligating,
and guiding without controlling.
When the fields are full of weeds
and the granaries are empty,
while some wear fancy clothes, carry
sharp swords, over-indulge in food and drink,
having more possessions
than they can use, the leaders are robbers; this is not the way.
States are governed by justice, and wars are waged by violations.
Yet the world can be mastered by non-intervention.
The more restrictions there are, the poorer the people.
The more sharp weapons, the more trouble in the state.
The more clever cunning, the more contrivances.
The more rules and regulations, the more thieves and robbers.
Therefore the wise say,
“Do not interfere, and people transform themselves.
Love peace, and people do what is right.
Do not intervene, and people prosper.
Have no desires, and people live simply.”5
When government is relaxed, people are happy; but when it is strict,
they are anxious.
When those responsible for justice become unjust,
what seems good becomes evil.
Lao-zi recommended frugality to
be prepared from the start
and in order to build up inner power.
Those with maternal leadership can long endure.
Governing a large
country is like cooking a small fish; one must be careful not
to overdo it.
As the female overcomes the male with tranquility,
a country can win over a small or large country by placing itself
below.
The difficult can be handled while it is still easy.
Great
accomplishments begin with what is small.
The wise always confront
difficulties before they get too large,
handling them before they
appear and organizing before there is confusion.
Be as careful
at the end as at the beginning, and there will be no failure.
The wise in watching over people speak humbly from below them
and in leading them get behind them.
Thus they do not oppress
them nor block them,
and everyone happily goes along without getting
tired.
From Lao-zi's three treasures of love, frugality, and not
pushing oneself ahead of others
come courage, generosity, and
leadership.
Love wins all battles and is the strongest defense;
heaven gives people the ability to love in order to save and protect
them.
The best soldier is nonviolent; the best fighter is not
angry; the best employer is humble.
Strategy says not to be the
aggressor but the defender; instead of advancing, retreat.
This
paradoxically is movement without moving, stretching the arm without
showing it,
confronting enemies with the idea there is no enemy,
while holding in the hand no weapons.
No disaster is worse than
underestimating the enemy;
but when the battle is joined, the
kind will win.
Those brave in killing will be killed, while those
brave in not killing will live.
The way of heaven does not strive;
yet it wins easily.
Like Confucius, Lao-zi found that the best knowledge is to
know that you do not know,
and like Socrates he found that thinking
you know when you do not is a disease.
By recognizing this disease,
the wise are free of it.
Since people are not afraid to die, why
threaten them with it?
How can we judge who is evil and to be
killed?
Those who try to do the work of the Lord of Death
by executing
rarely escape injuring themselves.
Only those who do not interfere
with living are best at valuing life.
The way of heaven takes
from those who have too much and gives to those
who do not have
enough, but the human way is just the opposite.
Only the person
of the way has enough to give to the world.
The wise do not hoard;
but the more they give, the more they have.
Those who bear the
humiliation of the people can minister to them,
and those who
take on the sins of the society can lead the world.
Lao-zi envisioned
a simple society in which food is tasty, clothes are beautiful,
home is comfortable, and customs are delightful so that people
feel no need to travel.
The way of heaven sharpens but does not
harm and accomplishes without striving.
Loving mercy brings courage and victory; economy brings abundance
and generosity;
and humility brings natural leadership.
Heaven
gives loving mercy to those it would not see destroyed.
Those
who know how to preserve life with these qualities will not be
harmed
by wild animals nor wounded in battle, because there is
no death in them.
Those courageous in fighting may be killed,
but those courageous in not fighting will live.
Living things
are tender and flexible, but dead things are stiff and rigid;
thus an inflexible government will be defeated.
A large country
is like the lower part of a river where the waters converge;
it
can win over small countries by placing itself below them,
and
a small country can win over a large country by serving it.
Confucius is the Latinized form of Kong Fu-zi, which means
Kong the master.
Confucius was born in the small state of Lu in
551 BC into the lower aristocratic class
of the impoverished knights,
and he died in 479 BC.
He lived during the last part of the Spring
and Autumn Era and died
two years after the beginning of the Period
of Warring States.
This was a time of turmoil, political intrigue,
and numerous small wars.
Assassinations, bribery, adultery, and
other crimes were common
even though punishments were severe.
In Lu three families contended for the hereditary rulership, while
numerous
educated aristocrats sought positions in the government,
and many suffered poverty.
The teachings of Confucius harmonize
well with those of Lao-zi.
While the approach of Lao-zi was mystical,
Confucius emphasized ethics and social philosophy.
Confucius was
the first well-known professional teacher in ancient China,
and
he served occasionally as a political advisor to princes.
Through
the influence of Confucius' teachings it became possible for men
to rise in social position by educating themselves and developing
their abilities.
By the age of fifteen Confucius had decided to concentrate
on learning and the improvement of his character.
By the age of
fifty he felt that he knew what the will of heaven was for him.
He advised the local ruler on good government.
In his late fifties
when he found that his principles were not really being put into
practice,
he traveled to other states looking for a ruler who
would listen to his advice.
When the Duke of Wei asked his advice
on military strategy, Confucius replied
that he had not studied
warfare; he left Wei the next day.
While he was journeying through
Song, Huan Tui,
the minister of war in that state, attempted to
assassinate him.
Confucius' confidence was not shaken, for he
said,
"Heaven produced the virtue that is in me.
What do
I have to fear from such a one as Huan Tui?"6
Apparently
Confucius did not hold this incident against Huan Tui's brother
Sima Niu,
because he accepted Sima Niu as one of his regular students.
Although eager to give political advice, Confucius twice renounced
invitations by rulers, because they were involved in civil wars.
Returning to Wei to advise the ruling minister there, Confucius
was asked
by the minister
how he might go about attacking a noble
who had offended the minister's daughter.
Confucius told him not
to attack; but when the minister went ahead with it,
Confucius
prepared his chariot to leave.
When the minister apologized, Confucius
was ready to stay;
but then messengers arrived inviting him to
return to his home state of Lu.
Confucius spent his last five
years in Lu, and once Ran Qiu was sent by Ji Kang-zi
to ask the
master's opinion about raising taxes.
Confucius stood with the
people against this; when Ran Qiu collected the increased taxes,
Confucius declared that he was no disciple of his.
Although Confucius
did advise Duke Ai to support the common people,
advance the upright,
and punish a usurper, he was ignored and felt
that he never really
had a chance to show what he could do.
In addition to teaching, Confucius is credited with editing
the Book of Odes
and the Spring and Autumn Annals,
revising the music and ceremonies,
and writing commentaries on
the Book of Changes.
The best source for his teachings
are the Analects (Lun Yu),
which describe his conversations
and were apparently written by his students.
From these accounts
we can see not only what Confucius taught
but how he taught and
what his attitudes and manners were like.
He was said to be free
of having forgone conclusions, dogmatism, obstinacy, and egotism.
His manner was affable but firm, commanding but not harsh;
he
was polite and completely at ease.
Zigong said Confucius could
get information in a foreign state
by being cordial, frank, courteous,
temperate, and deferential.
Zigong added that this was not the
way inquiries were usually made.
Confucius had a gentle sense
of humor and
did not mind being corrected by his own students.
Confucius cared most about people and was perhaps the first
great humanist in history.
When the stables burned down, he asked
if any person had been hurt
but did not inquire about the horses.
He recognized the free will of every individual, believing that
the commander of three armies could be removed,
while the will of
even a common person could not be taken away.
He spoke of the
way (dao) when he said,
"In the morning hear the way;
in the evening die content."7
Yet he believed that it was
humans who made the way great,
not the way that made humans great.
Confucius believed that he could even live among the barbarians,
because virtue never dwells alone and will always bring good neighbors.
He believed that a gentleman should help the needy, not make the
rich richer still.
Confucius criticized Yuan Si for rejecting
his salary of nine hundred measures
of grain as governor, because
he could have given it to his neighbors.
Confucius never gave up and believed that he was serving
by
being filial even if he was not in the government.
He never expected
to meet a faultless person but hoped that he might meet someone
of
fixed principles even though he saw many examples of nothing
pretending to be something.
He greatly disliked sham and deceit.
He felt he could not stoop to clever talk, a pretentious manner,
and a reverence that was only of the feet.
He could not bear to
see high offices filled with men of narrow views,
ceremonies performed
without reverence, and mourning forms observed without grief.
He hated seeing sharp mouths overturning states and clans.
Confucius believed that his mission was to spread the culture
that had been passed on to him by King Wen,
and trusting that
this was the will of heaven he did not even fear an assassin.
He must have believed in prayer, because he said that
whoever
turns away from heaven has no one to pray to.
He hoped that even
if he was not recognized in the world, he would be known in heaven.
When Confucius became ill, some of his students dressed up as
retainers;
but the master reprimanded them for this pretense
because
he knew he could not deceive heaven.
He preferred to die in the
arms of his disciples anyway.
Although he believed there were
others as honest as himself,
Confucius felt that no one loved
learning as much as he did.
Any situation could be a lesson.
When
walking with others he could emulate the good qualities he saw
in others
and correct the bad qualities in himself.
Confucius
did not believe himself to be a sage or even perfectly virtuous,
but he did claim unwearying effort to learn and unflagging patience
in teaching others.
Confucius taught that a person ought to make his own conduct
correct
before attempting to correct or rule over others.
The
ruler is analogous to the parent whose first obligation is to
love the children;
therefore, the ruler must love the people.
The people are to be loyal to the ruler; for Confucius this loyalty
means admonishing the leaders when they do wrong.
The essence
of Confucius' teachings is humanity (ren).
Goodness is
loving people, and wisdom is understanding people.
The single
motto he believed could be practiced all the time was the golden
rule
of consideration: do not do to others what you do not want
them to do to you.
Stating it thus in the negative leaves one
free to do anything else;
whereas enjoining one to do to others
what you want them to do to you
places an expectation of your
values on them.
When the ruler Ji Kang-zi complained about all
the thieves,
Confucius said that if he were free of desire, they
would not steal even if he paid them.
When asked if injury should
be repaid with virtue, Confucius said that
injury should be repaid
with justice so that virtue could be repaid with virtue.
When
asked about the true gentleman, Confucius said that he cultivates
himself carefully
so as to help other people.
In government one
ought to lead by example and work hard for the people.
When the bold and daring Zilu asked him whom he would take
with him to command an army, Confucius replied, "Not the
man who is ready to
'attack a tiger bare-handed or swim across
a river' not caring whether he lived or died,
but I should take
someone who approaches difficulties with due caution,
who likes
to plan precisely and carry it out."8
When Confucius was
asked what is the first measure in administering a government,
the brash Zilu could not believe his answer that it is to correct
the language.
So Confucius explained that if what is said is not
in accordance with the truth of things,
affairs cannot be carried
out to success; propriety and music will not flourish,
and punishments
will go astray.
When punishments go astray, people do not know
how to move hand or foot.
The Analects concludes with the
statement by Confucius that a gentleman
must understand the will
of heaven, the rules of propriety, and
be able to understand words
in order to understand people.
He also admired those who humbly
refused the sovereignty
and renounced violence despite their sufferings.
Confucius credited Guan Zhong for helping Duke Huan
to unite the
states' rulers without using war-chariots.
Confucius believed that if the people were led by governmental
measures
that kept order by laws and punishments,
they would try
to avoid them and would lose all self-respect.
Yet if they were
led by virtue with order kept by propriety,
they would keep their
self-respect and set themselves right.
Confucius observed that
if one's actions were motivated by profit,
one would have many
enemies.
Confucius did not like competition and pointed out that
even in an archery match
the contenders were gentlemen at the
drinking-bout afterward.
He believed that the ancients studied
for self-improvement,
but that now people learn in order to impress
people.
For Confucius propriety enabled the ancient kings to establish
harmony and beauty.
Without propriety courtesy becomes tiresome,
caution becomes timidity,
daring insubordination, and straightforwardness
rudeness.
It is better to be sparing than extravagant in ceremonies,
and funerals are to be observed with deep sorrow, not fear.
A
gentleman properly blends substance and refinement,
for too much
of the first is rude and of the latter pedantic.
Yet Confucius
believed that anyone who followed the rules
of propriety completely
would be thought a sycophant.
Confucius always kept in mind the practical goals of education.
He asked if one could recite the three hundred Odes but
did not know how to act
in government or answer specific questions
on a mission,
of what use was extensive knowledge?
The first step
is for one to correct one's own conduct,
then one may assist in
governing others.
But if one cannot rectify oneself, how could
one ever rectify others?
Wisdom may bring one into power, but
goodness is needed to secure that power.
Without dignity one will
not be respected by the common people,
and the rules of propriety
must also be followed.
With sincere faith and the love of learning
one should not be afraid to die in pursuing the way.
Dangerous
and chaotic states should be avoided.
If the way does not prevail,
it is better to hide,
and the wealthy and honored ought to be
ashamed.
When the way does prevail, one may show oneself and be
bold in speech and action.
Like Lao-zi, Confucius believed in following the way.
How else
could one get out of the house except through the door
or find
one's way into the Inner Room?
Knowing the way leads to loving
it, and loving it leads to taking delight in it.
When Ji Kang-zi
asked Confucius if he should kill those who do not have the way,
the master said, "You are there to rule, not to kill.
If
you desire what is good, the people will be good."9
In loving
their children and people, parents and rulers must exact some
effort from them,
and in being loyal to parents and rulers, children
and the people
should not refrain from admonishing the object
of their loyalty.
In addition to attending strictly to business
and punctually observing promises,
Confucius said an administrator
is economical in expenditure, loves the people,
and uses the peasants'
labor only at the proper seasons of the year.
The Chinese word for virtue (de) implies power and
something
that can be built up within oneself.
Confucius said he never found
anyone whose desire for virtue
was as strong as the sexual desire
for beauty.
Virtue can be gained by doing the work first before
considering the reward
and by attacking the evil within oneself
rather than the evil in others.
One of the great threats Confucius
saw to virtue was the confusion of clever talk,
just as small
impatiences can ruin great projects.
For Confucius the good are
never unhappy, the wise never confused,
and the brave never afraid.
Courage, however, must not take priority over justice,
or an aristocrat
would become an insurgent and a common person a thief.
The higher
knowledge of wisdom is to know
when one knows something and when
one does not.
"Whoever learns but does not think is lost;
but whoever thinks but does not learn is in danger."10
Perhaps the teachings of Confucius regarding inner peace and
peaceful society
can best be summarized by the brief portion attributed
to him
in the Confucian classic Higher Education (Da Xue).
The Way of higher education is cultivated and practiced by
manifesting one’s enlightening character of spiritual power,
loving the people,
and holding to the highest good.By knowing how to hold to the highest good,
purpose is directed.
When purpose is directed, calm clarity results.
Calm clarity leads to peaceful poise.
Peaceful poise leads to careful deliberation.
Careful deliberation leads to success.
Living things have their roots and branches;
human events have their beginnings and endings.
To understand what is first and last
will lead one near the Way.The ancients who wished to manifest
the enlightening character of spiritual power to the world
would first bring order to their government.
Wishing to bring order to their government,
they would first bring harmony to their families.
Wishing to bring harmony to their families,
they would first cultivate their personal lives.
Wishing to cultivate their personal lives,
they would first set their hearts right.
Wishing to set their hearts right,
they would first make their wills sincere.
Wishing to make their wills sincere,
they would first extend their knowledge to the utmost.
Such extension of knowledge comes from investigating things.When things are investigated, knowledge is extended.
When knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere.
When the will is sincere, the heart is set right.
When the heart is right, the personal life is cultivated.
When personal lives are cultivated,
families become harmonious.
When families are harmonious,
government becomes orderly.
And when government is orderly,
there will be peace in the world.From the Son of Heaven down to the common people,
all must regard cultivation of the personal life as the root.
A disordered root cannot grow into ordered branches.
If what is near is neglected,
how can one take care of what is far away?
This is the root and foundation of knowledge.11
Mo-zi was born about ten years after the death of Confucius,
and he died about twenty years before Mencius was born in 371
BC.
He studied under the scholars of the growing Confucian school,
but he became
an independent religious teacher with several hundred
devoted disciples.
Living ascetically and preaching universal
love, he criticized the Confucian philosophy
for its excessive
use of rituals, elaborate funerals and music,
and what he believed
to be its fatalism.
Moism challenged Confucianism for prominence
in China for two hundred years
until it declined during the era
of warring states
before the violent founding of the Qin empire.
Chinese Confucians rejected Mo's philosophy mostly because they
believed that
they should love their families more than other
people;
thus they disagreed with his philosophy of universal love.
For most of its history since then China has been influenced by
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.
Perhaps Mo-zi's philosophy
of universal love without distinction was too idealistic
for a
culture that was so loyal to family ties,
and his criticism of
their rituals went against their social habits.
Mo-zi became a minister in the state of Song but often traveled
to different states
to advise rulers on how they could apply his
teachings.
He believed that justice has the power to serve people
and produce wealth.
Mo-zi thought of being a farmer to feed people
or a weaver to clothe people
or a soldier to defend people; but
he decided that if he could persuade rulers
to adopt his principles
of justice, then states would be orderly,
and the benefit would
be greater than by plowing or weaving.
A friend said he was foolish
for persisting in the struggle for justice,
since he was almost
alone.
Mo-zi replied that like the farmer who had only one son
out of ten
actually working, his efforts should be encouraged
even more.
Gong Shu-zi invented grappling hooks and rams for Chu and asked
Mo-zi
if he had any device as good in his justice.
Mo-zi said
that he pulled with love and pushed with respect, because without
love
there is no intimacy and without respect there is rapid desecration,
which without intimacy leads to separation.
Thus mutual love and
respect bring mutual benefit, but pulling in order to stop retreat
and pushing to stop an advance is nothing but mutual injury.
Mo-zi and his disciples traveled from place to place
preaching
and attempting to prevent wars.
When Mo-zi heard that Kong Shu
Ban had constructed ladders so that he could attack
the small
state of Song, he walked ten days and ten nights,
tearing off
pieces of his garment to wrap his feet, in order to talk with
Kong Shu Ban.
Mo-zi began by asking him to kill someone in the
north who had humiliated him,
but Kong Shu Ban declared that murder
was against his principles.
Then Mo-zi bowed in apology and explained
that for a ruler of a large state
to attack a small and innocent
state was also against the principle of killing.
When Kong Shu
Ban argued that he had already promised his king he would attack,
Mo-zi asked to be presented to the king.
He asked the king why
one who has so much would try to steal from one who has little.
The king mentioned the ladders, but Mo-zi laid out a model city
and showed how
he with only a small stick could defend the city
against Kong Shu Ban's machines.
Aware that the king was thinking
he could murder him, Mo-zi declared that
three hundred of his
disciples were waiting
on the city wall of Song with implements
of defense.
Even though he might be killed, the city could not
be taken.
So the king decided not to attack.
Several of Mo-zi's writings are on the subjects of fortifications
and defense against attacks.
Gong Shang Guo, after talking with
Mo-zi, recommended him to the Lord of Yue,
who sent fifty wagons
to Lu to induce Mo-zi to come and instruct him,
promising also
a large piece of land in the former state of Wu.
Yet Mo-zi only
asked for the food and clothing necessary for his body;
but if
the Lord of Yue was not going to listen to his words,
he did not
need to go outside of the empire to sell his justice.
When the Lord of Lu was afraid that Qi was going to attack
him,
he asked Mo-zi if there was any remedy.
Mo-zi suggested that
he revere heaven and the spirits above
while loving and benefiting
the people below; he should humble his speech,
befriend the neighboring
lords, and lead his state in serving Qi.
Mo-zi also advised the
general of Qi that to attack Lu was wrong,
and he gave examples
from history how large states had attacked small states
and been
defeated by the vengeance of the feudal lords.
He asked the Grand
Lord of Qi who would be cursed for capturing a state,
ruining
an army, and destroying the people,
and after deliberation the
Lord realized that it would be himself.
In Wei as an envoy, Mo-zi cautioned Gong Liang Huan-zi that
a small state like Wei
between Qi and Jin is like a poor family
in the midst of rich families;
the poor family that imitates the
rich in extravagance will be ruined.
If the money spent on luxuries
was devoted to self-defense in this emergency,
the state would
be more secure.
Sima Qian's Historical Records mention
that Mo-zi was imprisoned in Song
on the advice of Zi Han, who
in 404 BC murdered Duke Zhao of Song.
The historian also credited
Mo-zi with being skilled at defense and practicing frugality.
Mo-zi had recommended Cao Gong-zi to the state of Song,
and after
three years he returned complaining of the frugal food and clothing
in Mo-zi's school; now several members of his family have died,
six animals have not bred, and he himself has suffered ailments.
Mo-zi replied that he was not fair, because the man did not give
up his position
to the virtuous, did not share his wealth with
the poor,
and then merely served the spirits by sacrificing to
them.
This was like shutting one of a hundred gates
and then wondering
how the thieves entered.
In 393 BC Prince Wen of Lu Yang was planning to attack Zheng.
Mo-zi went to stop him and asked him what he would do if his large
cities
attacked his small cities, killing the people and taking
their goods.
Prince Wen replied that he would punish them severely,
to which Mo-zi asked whether heaven would punish him if he attacked
Zheng.
Prince Wen, however, felt that it was the will of heaven,
because they had murdered their lords for three generations and
had already suffered three hard years of heaven's punishment.
Mo-zi posed the case of a father, who was punishing his son
when
the neighbor's father struck his son, saying it is in accord with
the father's will.
If a lord attacks neighboring states, kills
their people, takes away their goods,
and then writes down how
powerful he is, is that any better than
a common man who does
the same thing to his neighbors?
Prince Wen then realized that
what the world takes for granted may not be right after all.
Mo-zi
said that gentlemen of the world know only trifles, not what is
important.
If a man steals a pig, they call him wrong; but if
a state is stolen, they call it just.
Finally Prince Wen referred
to the barbarians who practice cannibalism;
but Mo-zi complained
that in the civilized world, instead of killing the father
to
reward the son, they kill the sons (in war) to reward the fathers.
Mo-zi had a school and recommended several of his disciples
for political positions in Chu, Wei, and Song.
He sent Sheng Zhuo
to serve Xiang-zi Niu, who invaded Lu
three times accompanied
by Sheng Zhuo.
So Mo-zi sent Gao Sun-zi to call him back, saying
that he sent Zhuo there to cure pride
and regulate insolence;
but Zhuo was drawing a large salary and flattering his master.
For Mo-zi, to preach justice and not do it is an intentional wrong.
He thought Zhuo knew better, but his justice had been overcome
by the emolument.
Mo-zi praised his disciple Gao Shi-zi for leaving the Lord
of Wei
after his counsels were ignored three times, because when
the way is not being observed
in the world, a superior person
does not stay in a position of plenty.
However, when Gao-zi said
that he could administer a country,
Mo-zi replied that to govern
is to carry out what one teaches.
As the students of Mo-zi already
knew, Gao-zi did not behave
according to what he taught, which
means he himself was in revolt.
Being unable to govern himself,
how could he govern a country?
One man once challenged Mo-zi that his idea of universal love
did not benefit the world
and this man's not loving the world
did no harm.
Mo-zi posed a parable.
If there was a terrible fire,
and one man fetched water to extinguish it
and another fuel to
reinforce it, even though neither had yet accomplished anything,
which one was more valuable?
Thus the intention to love universally
was better than the opposite.
Mo-zi exhorted people to be virtuous
for the good that it would do for all.
However, too often the
rulers honored relatives, the rich, and the good-looking
rather
than those with merit.
Mo-zi suggested that people identify with
heaven, which is universally beneficial.
Those who obey the will
of heaven practice justice;
but those who use force are disobeying
the will of heaven.
When justice is followed, the strong will
not oppress the weak,
the eminent will not lord it over the humble,
and the cunning will not deceive the stupid.
Mo-zi transcended
political authority when he said that people must go beyond
identifying
with the son of heaven (emperor) and identify with heaven itself.
In addition to strategies of defense, Mo-zi wrote several treatises
to explain his philosophy.
In an essay on "Universal Love"
he began with the basic principle that the humane
try to promote
what is beneficial to the world and eliminate what is harmful.
He believed that the greatest harm of his time was great states
attacking small ones,
the strong oppressing the weak, the many
bothering the few,
the cunning deceiving the stupid, the eminent
lording it over the humble,
and mean people seeking to injure
others with weapons.
These are not caused by people trying to
love and benefit each other but by trying to injure.
This injuring
comes about because people are not motivated
by universal love
but by partiality, which is wrong.
Mo-zi felt that one should not criticize others without having
an alternative to offer them.
He suggested universal love instead
of partiality.
How can this be done?
If people were to regard
other states as they regard their own,
they would not attack one
another; for it would be like attacking one's own state.
Now if we seek to benefit the world
by taking universality as our standard,
those with sturdy limbs will work for others,
and those with a knowledge of the way
will endeavor to teach others.
Those who are old and without wives or children
will find means of support and be able to live out their days;
the young and orphaned who have no parents
will find someone to care for them and look after their needs.12
The universal person regards one's friend the same as oneself
and the father of one's friend as one's father.
Only the person
who does this can be considered a truly superior person.
Such
a person will feed people when they are hungry, clothe them when
they are cold,
nourish them when they are sick, and bury them
when they die.
The selfish person will not.
To which type of person
will one trust the support of one's parents,
to the universal
person or the selfish one?
Even if one does not believe in universal
love,
that person would trust his or her family to the universal
person.
Also if people had to choose between these two types of
rulers, who would they follow?
Thus people may criticize universal
love in words, but they adopt it in practice.
If we want other people to love and benefit our parents,
then
we must make it a point first to love and benefit others' parents.
Thus Mo-zi showed how universal love and mutual benefit can be
profitable and easy,
but the only trouble is that no ruler delights
in them.
If rulers did adopt them, Mo-zi predicted that the people
would turn to universal love
and mutual benefit as naturally as
fire turns upward and water flows downward.
This is the way of
the ancient sage kings to bring about safety for the rulers
and
officials and to assure ample food and clothing for the people.
If this is put into practice, rulers will be generous, subjects
loyal, fathers kind, sons filial,
older brothers friendly, and
younger brothers respectful.
In his "Honoring the Worthy" Mo-zi acknowledged that
rulers and officials
all want their states to be wealthy, their
populations numerous,
and their administrations well ordered,
but he found that they are poor, few, and chaotic.
Mo-zi recommended
that those governing honor the worthy and employ the capable
so
that government will be more effective and the people prosperous.
Also those without ability must be demoted in order to
do away
with private likes and dislikes.
Mo-zi taught that when the wise
rule, there will be order;
but when the stupid rule over the wise,
there will be chaos.
Thus the ancient sage kings honored the worthy
and employed the capable
without showing any special consideration
for their own kin,
no partiality for the eminent and rich, and
no favoritism for the good-looking.
Thus the people were encouraged
by these rewards to become more capable,
and the sage kings listened
to the worthy, watched their actions,
observed their abilities,
and assigned them to the proper office.
To accomplish this three principles must be followed:
first,
the positions of the worthy must be exalted enough so that the
people will respect them;
second, the salaries must be generous
so that people will have confidence in them;
and third, their
orders must be enforced so that people will be in awe of them.
According to Mo-zi in the ancient times worthy men who accomplished
anything
gave the credit to the ruler, while all grudges and complaints
were directed against
subordinates so that the ruler always had
peace and joy,
while the ministers handled the cares and sorrows.
The ruler, however, must be willing to delegate responsibility
and pay out stipends.
The unworthy steal and plunder in government
and,
if assigned a city, betray their trust or rebel.
They do
not know to employ the capable but instead hire their relatives
and those who happen to be eminent or attractive.
In "Identifying with One's Superior" Mo-zi speculated
that at first people lived in chaos,
because each person had their
own views; this resulted in conflict.
Eventually people chose
the most capable as leaders so that
government could be unified
and under intelligent direction.
The son of heaven (emperor) then
appointed high ministers, who helped regulate
the feudal lords
and chiefs, who in turn chose the worthy and able to act as officials.
Then the son of heaven proclaimed the law that
anyone hearing
of good or evil must report it to one's superior.
The judgments
of the superior are to be respected;
but if a superior commits
a fault, the subordinates are to remonstrate.
Those who do good
are to be rewarded and those who do evil punished,
and the greatest
care must be taken that these are just.
However, Mo-zi also believed that the people should
not only
identify with the son of heaven but with heaven itself,
or else
there will be no end to calamities, which are punishments from
heaven.
Someone asked Mo-zi why then was there such disorder in
the empire.
Mo-zi used the example of the barbarian Miao to explain
that punishments
must be applied with instruction and admonition
or else they become mere tortures.
Originally government intended
to benefit people and eliminate adversity, to help the poor,
increase
the few, bring safety where there was danger,
and restore order
where there was confusion.
At the present, however, administration
is carried on by court flattery,
and fathers and brothers and
other relatives and friends are appointed rulers of the people.
Since people realize that they have not been appointed for the
welfare of the people,
they do not respect them nor identify with
them.
Thus the purposes of government are not unified;
rewards
do not encourage people to do good;
and punishments do not restrain
them from doing evil.
The ancient sage kings had many to help them see and hear,
because they could trust their staff in administering.
Virtuous
people, even far away, were found and rewarded,
while the wicked
were also punished;
thieves and robbers could not find refuge
anywhere.
Mo-zi believed that whoever asks the people to identify
with their superiors
must love them dearly; otherwise they would
not trust the ruler and obey orders.
People can be led with the
rewards of wealth and honor ahead of them
and pushed from behind
with just punishments.
Mo-zi wrote most vehemently against offensive warfare.
Everyone
condemns stealing and violence against others on an individual
level.
Yet when it comes to the greater injustice of offensive
warfare against other states,
gentlemen do not know enough to
condemn it; instead they praise it and call it just.
To kill one
person is a capital crime; but when states kill hundreds,
they
praise it and write down the record for posterity.
Mo-zi complained
that the feudal lords of his day continued to attack
and annex
their neighboring states, claiming they were honoring justice.
The ancient sage kings strove to unite the world in harmony
in order to bring people together.
Contemporary rulers examine
the relative merits of their soldiers and weapons
and then set
off to attack some innocent state where they destroy crops,
cut
down trees, raze walls, fill in moats and ponds, slaughter animals,
burn temples, massacre the people, and carry away their treasures.
The soldiers are urged on with the idea that to die is the highest
honor,
and the penalty for running away is death.
Does this benefit
heaven?
It is attacking the people of heaven.
Does this benefit
humans?
Mo-zi ironically wrote,
But murdering men is a paltry way to benefit them indeed,
and when we calculate the expenditures for such warfare
we find that they have crippled the basis of the
nation’s livelihood and exhausted the resources
of the people to an incalculable degree.”13
Mo-zi recounted how many hundreds of officials and how many
thousands of soldiers
were required for these expeditions that
might last several years.
Meanwhile officials must neglect government,
farmers their crops, and women their weaving.
If one-fifth of
the supplies and weapons are salvaged afterwards, it is considered
fortunate.
Countless men will desert or die of starvation, cold,
and sickness.
He asked if it is not perverse that rulers and officials
delight in the injury
and extermination of the people of the world.
Usually it is the larger states like Qi, Jin, Chu, and Yue that
attack the smaller ones,
which is like destroying what one does
not have enough of
for the sake of what one already has in excess.
In this way many states have been made extinct,
while hardly more
than these four powerful states remain.
The world has become as
weary as a little boy who has spent the day playing horse.
Mo-zi wished someone would conduct diplomacy in good faith
and think first of how to benefit others, would feel concerned
with others
when a large state commits an unjust act, would with
others help rescue the small state
that is attacked by a large
state, and would help small states repair their defenses
and get
supplies of cloth and grain and funds; then the smaller states
would be pleased.
If others struggle while one is at ease,
and
if one is merciful and generous, the people will be won over.
If one substitutes good government for offensive warfare
and spends
less on the army, one will gain rich benefits.
If one acts according
to justice and sets an example for others,
then one will have
no enemies and bring incalculable benefit to the world.
Mo-zi also recommended moderation in expenditures by avoiding
beginning enterprises,
employing people, or spending wealth on
anything that is not necessary,
such as elaborate funerals and
courtly musical and cultural extravaganzas.
A strict utilitarian,
Mo-zi considered only the pragmatic value of activities and expenditures,
complaining that luxurious music and arts for the court
drain
the wealth and abilities of the people.
Mo-zi believed that heaven knows of the crimes people commit.
Heaven loves justice and hates injustice.
If we lead the people
to devote themselves to justice,
then we are doing what heaven
wants.
How does one know heaven wants justice?
In the world where
there is justice there is life, wealth, and order,
and where there
is no justice there is death, poverty, and disorder.
Since heaven
desires life, wealth, and order, it follows that it desires justice.
Whoever obeys the will of heaven by loving all people universally
and working for their benefit will be rewarded.
Those who disobey
the will of heaven by showing partiality and hatred
in injuring
others will surely incur punishment.
The former regard justice
as right, but the latter believe force is right.
Heaven desires that those who have strength work for others,
those with wealth share with others, those above attend diligently
to government,
and those below diligently carry out their tasks
so that the state will be well ordered.
When the state avoids
armed clashes on its borders,
when it devotes its efforts to feeding
the hungry, giving rest to the weary,
and taking care of its subjects,
then human relations will be good.
Mo-zi believed that heaven
loves the world universally
and seeks mutual benefit for all creatures.
There is not even the tip of a hair that is not the work of heaven.
For Mo-zi the will of heaven was like the compass to the wheelwright
or a square to a carpenter; it is the standard to measure government
as well as words and actions.
The sage kings devoted themselves
to universality and shunned partiality,
but the feudal lords regard
might as right.
For Mo-zi those with a universal mind love a friend the same
as themselves,
and their friend's father the same as their own
father.
Thus they will feed those who are hungry, clothe those
who are cold,
take care of those who are sick, and bury those
who die.
Would it be wiser to entrust one's parents to such universally
minded people
or to those who are partial?
Likewise rulers ought
to care for their subjects in the same way
as universally minded
people do,
and government ought to treat another state the same
as its own state.
Such a government would never attack another
state.
By not threatening other states they would be left in peace,
and by reducing military expenditures prosperity would result.
Mo-zi believed that warfare as mass murder was that much more
of a crime
than a single murder, and yet often people praise war
and call it just.
Murdering people is hardly the way to benefit
them,
and the expenditures of warfare cripple the nation's livelihood
and exhaust the resources of the people.
During war the affairs
of government are neglected, the farms lie fallow,
and many of
the best people are lost.
Mo-zi concluded by asking if rulers
who glory in injuring and
exterminating the people of the world
are not perverse.
Mencius (371-289 BC) studied under the pupil of Confucius'
grandson,
and his writings became one of the four Confucian classics.
Like Confucius and Mo-zi, he was a professional teacher
and a
political advisor who traveled from state to state.
According
to the historian Sima Qian, Mencius went to Qi to serve King Xuan.
He also went to Liang, where King Hui found his views
impractical
and remote from reality before he fully listened to them.
Then
Mencius retired, and with the help of his disciple Wan Zhang and
others
he wrote his philosophy in seven books.
The first book of Mencius begins by describing his visit
to King Hui of Liang in Wei; he ruled from 370 to 319 BC.
The
aged king assumed that Mencius came a long way
because he believed
he could bring profit to his state.
Mencius replied that concern
for profit is what imperils a state;
all that matters is what
is good and right.
King Hui said he had worked hard in governing
and asked why his population had not increased.
Mencius told him
that he was too fond of war.
If he did not interfere with the
busy seasons in the fields,
then the people would have more grain
to eat.
If he did not allow nets with too fine a mesh to be used
in the large ponds,
there would be more fish to eat.
If the cutting
down of trees with axes was limited, there would be enough timber.
By caring for education in village schools and teaching proper
human relationships,
humans would respect each other and their
king.
But failing to garner surplus food or distribute it when
people are starving,
saying it is the fault of the harvest, is
like killing a man and blaming it on the weapon.
Good government
reduces punishment and taxation, gets the people
to plow deeply
and weed promptly, and helps the able to learn.
The king of Liang asked Mencius how the empire could be settled,
and he replied that one who is not fond of killing could unite
it;
but among the shepherds of people at that time there was not
one doing so.
Mencius said that King Hui could become a true king
by bringing peace to the people;
but he was failing because he
did not practice kindness.
It was not that he lacked the ability,
but he had refused to act in the proper way.
Mencius knew that
the king wanted to extend his territory,
rule over the central
kingdoms and bring peace to the barbarians on the borders;
but
his way of going about it was like looking for a fish by climbing
a tree.
Not only was it unlikely he would find it;
but his way
was worse because it would also cause disaster.
If he practiced
good government, the office seekers would want to be in his court,
the farmer to till his land, the merchants to use his marketplace,
the travelers to go by his roads, and all those who hate their
rulers
would come to him with their complaints.
Mencius said that
only a gentleman can keep a constant heart;
the people tend to
lose constancy and go astray, falling into excesses.
To punish
them then is like setting a trap for them.
A bright ruler makes
sure they have what they need before he drives them toward the
good;
thus it is easy for them to follow him.
To accomplish this
he must go back to the fundamentals
of nurturing the people's
needs and providing education.
When King Hui died, his successor seemed to Mencius to lack
dignity;
so he went to advise Xuan, who had become king of Qi
in 320 BC.
Mencius suggested that King Xuan share his enjoyments
with his people,
for when a king's park is open to the people
they consider it small;
but when they are prohibited from entering
it, they naturally think it is too large.
King Xuan asked how
he could promote good relations with other states.
Mencius said
that by submitting to a state smaller than his one
delights in
heaven and enjoys possession of the empire, and in submitting
to a larger state one is in awe of heaven and enjoys the possession
of one's own state.
Mencius told how Duke Jing followed wise advice
and opened
his granaries for the poor; another ruler cared for
the aged and orphans.
Although King Xuan said these things were well spoken,
he could
not put them into practice because he loved money and women.
When
Mencius asked the king what should be done
if someone entrusted
his wife and family to the care of a friend,
and they were allowed
to suffer cold and hunger,
the King said he should break with
his friend;
if the marshal of the Guards could not control his
guards, he should be replaced.
Yet when Mencius asked what should
be done if the whole realm is ill-governed,
the King turned to
his attendants and changed the subject.
Mencius advised that when
the attendants all give the same recommendation,
and the counselors
and everyone else does also,
it still should be investigated to
see if what they say is true.
In this way good and wise men may
be appointed, and unsuitable officers may be removed.
King Xuan asked if regicide was permitted since Shang founder
Tang banished Jie,
and King Wu marched against the last Shang
king;
but Mencius responded that these rulers so mutilated humanity
that they should be called outcasts not kings.
In 315 BC the king
of Yen abdicated in favor of his prime minister Zizhi,
causing
a revolt in Yen.
Mencius was asked if it was all right to march
on Yen.
He said yes, because the king had no right to give Yen
to another;
but he explained that he was not encouraging Qi to
invade Yen,
because only a heaven-appointed officer had the right
to do so.
After Qi invaded Yen, King Xuan asked Mencius if he
should annex Yen.
Mencius said that if annexing it would please
its people, then it could be done;
but if annexing it, antagonized
its people, then he should not.
Qi annexed Yen, and most of the
feudal lords planned to aid Yen.
King Xuan asked Mencius how he
should meet the threat.
Mencius referred to the example of Tang,
founder of the Shang dynasty
and then gave the following advice:
Now when you went to punish Yen
which practiced tyranny over its people,
the people thought
you were going to rescue them from water and fire,
and they came to meet the army,
bringing baskets of rice and bottles of drink.
How can it be right for you to kill the old and bind the young,
destroy the ancestral temples
and appropriate the valuable vessels?
Even before this,
the whole Empire was afraid of the power of Qi.
Now you double your territory
without practicing good government.
This is to provoke the armies of the whole Empire.
If you hasten to order the release of the captives, old and young,
leave the valuable vessels where they are,
and take your army out
after setting up a ruler in consultation with the men of Yen,
it is still not too late to halt the armies of the Empire.14
Mencius later explained that he never intended to stay long
in Qi;
but he was unable to leave because the war broke out.
Duke
Mu of Zuou asked Mencius what he should do
after thirty-three
of his officers died without the people helping them.
Mencius
recalled that in the years of bad harvest nearly a thousand of
his people
had suffered in spite of full granaries because his
officials
had not informed him of what was happening.
Zeng-zi's
warning that what you mete out will be paid back to you came to
pass.
Mencius said the Duke should not hold a grudge against the
people,
because if he practices good government,
they will love
their superiors and even die for them.
Mencius advised Duke Wen of the small state of Teng to do good
and hope that heaven will grant success.
In starting an enterprise
a gentleman can only leave behind a tradition that can be carried
on.
He cited the case of a leader of Bin, who told his people
that the Di tribes wanted their land,
and so rather than bring
harm to them he was leaving.
The people of Bin realized that he
was a good man and flocked after him as if to market.
Others decided
to stay and defend their land.
These were the two choices.
Mencius declared that the appearance of a true king was never
more overdue
than in his time when the people suffered under such
tyrannical governments.
He did not just admire the ancients; he
believed that
twice as much could be done in his time with half
the effort.
Along with the legendary sages, Bo Yi and Yi Yin,
he admired Confucius most of all.
They were capable of winning
the homage of the feudal lords;
but if they had to kill one innocent
person in order to gain the empire,
none of them would have consented
to do so.
People only submit to force unwillingly because they
are not strong enough to resist;
but when they submit to the transforming
influence of ethics,
they do so sincerely with admiration in their
hearts.
Goodness brings honor, but cruelty brings disgrace.
When
the good and wise rule, the able are employed;
in times of peace
the laws can be explained to the people,
but the ruler indulging
in pleasures and indolence courts disaster.
If the good and wise
are honored and the able are employed,
gentlemen will come to
the court.
If goods are exempted from taxation in the marketplace
and premises are exempted from land taxes, traders will come.
If there is no fee at border stations, travelers will come.
If
tillers pay no land tax but help in the public fields, farmers
will come.
Mencius believed that no one is devoid of a heart sensitive
to the suffering of others
and used the example of a baby about
to fall into a well.
Anyone will naturally be moved by compassion
to prevent the tragedy,
not to get into the good graces of the
parents nor to win praise
nor because one dislikes to hear a child
cry.
Whoever is devoid of a heart of compassion and shame over
right or wrong is not human.
From this heart comes goodness, duty,
courtesy, propriety, and wisdom;
anyone lacking these is a slave.
Practicing the good is like archery:
when one fails to hit the
mark, one must correct oneself.
If others do not respond to your
love, look into your own humanity.
If others fail to respond to
your governing, consider your own wisdom.
If others do not return
your courtesy, look at your own respect.
Whenever you fail to
achieve your purpose, examine yourself.
The best person, like the great Shun, is not afraid to learn
from others,
and after doing good oneself goes on to help others
do good.
Mencius believed that the good and talented ought to
help those who are less so.
Only one who will not do some things
is capable of doing great things.
He warned people to think of
the consequences
before pointing out the shortcomings of others.
Doing what is right was paramount for Mencius, as he believed
that
a great person might not always keep one's word or see actions
through to the end,
if these were not right.
A superior person
finds the way in oneself, is at ease with it,
and draws deeply
from it, finding its source wherever one turns.
Those who follow
the way have many supporters; those who do not have few.
At court
rank is exalted, and in the village age is respected;
but for
assisting the world and governing people virtue is best.
Mencius
accused the governor of Ping Lu of refusing to report to duty
several times
because he allowed his people to starve during a
famine.
Mencius recommended that if farmers help each other to keep
watch
and nurse each other in illness, they will live in love
and harmony.
The way cannot be bent to please others;
no one has
ever straightened others by bending oneself.
Mencius mentioned
that the current teachings in the empire
were those of Yang Zhu
and Mo-zi.
Yang Zhu taught everyone for oneself,
and Mo-zi advocated
love without making any preference for family.
Mencius felt this
was no better than beasts.
Mencius believed that love of one's
parents was the first step
which could lead to peace in the empire.
Pleasing one's parents begins by being true to oneself
which depends
on understanding goodness.
By pleasing one's parents one can win
the trust of friends,
the confidence of superiors, and thus govern
the people.
Mencius referred to Confucius criticizing Ran Qiu for agreeing
to raise taxes.
How much more would he reject those who wage war
on behalf of rulers
to gain land and fill the plains with the
dead!
Mencius called this showing the land how to devour human
flesh.
For Mencius, a great person retains the heart of a child.
He felt that even goodness could not be used to dominate people.
One can only succeed by using goodness for the welfare of the
people,
and one can never gain the empire without their heart-felt
admiration.
The good retain their hearts and love others, and
the courteous respect others.
Sages may live in retirement or
in the world, but they always keep their integrity intact.
The
heart of compassion is good; the heart of shame is dutiful;
the
heart of respect is appropriate; and the heart of right and wrong
is wise.
Mencius said, "Seek and you will find it; let go
and you will lose it."15
People become different because
of what ensnares their hearts.
The sage is merely the one who
discovers what is right and reasonable in the heart.
Mencius observed that once the trees had been luxuriant on
Ox Mountain,
but being near a city they were constantly chopped
by axes.
With rain and dew new shoots came out;
but then cattle
and sheep grazed upon the mountain, leaving it bald.
Is this the
nature of the mountain?
Similarly humans lose their true hearts,
just as the trees were lopped off day by day.
Humans rest at night,
but each day dissipates what has been gained.
When what was original
is no longer preserved, they become like animals.
Anything will
grow with the right nourishment, but without it anything will
wither away.
Goodness is the heart, and conscientiousness is the
correct road.
When the heart strays, people often fail to go after
it;
yet when chickens stray, people will retrieve them.
For Mencius
the sole concern of learning is to go after this strayed heart.
People love all the parts of their person.
However, the petty
person harms the more important in seeking what is less valuable,
while the great person nurtures the parts of greater importance.
Heaven has given to humans a heart that can think and tell the
difference.
However, if one does not think, one will not find
the answer.
Mencius compared goodness to water, which can overcome the
cruelty of fire.
Some try to put out a cartload of burning wood
with a cup of water
and then say water cannot overcome fire.
To
do this is to place one on the side of the most cruel; in the
end they perish.
The way is like a broad road that is not difficult
to find.
The problem is that people simply do not look for it.
Those who do look for it will find enough teachers.
Once Mencius
met a man, who was going to Chu
to persuade them that war was
unprofitable.
Mencius commended his purpose but suggested that
by
putting profit first ethics may be excluded, and the result
will be chaos.
By placing the ethics of what is best for all before
people
all human relationships can be made mutually beneficial.
Mencius explained how morality had degenerated from the three
ancient emperors
to the five protectors of the feudal lords to
the current feudal lords and their counselors,
each of which offended
against those who came before.
The emperor used to inspect the
domain, and the feudal lords reported on their duties;
those who
needed it were given aid.
In the feudal system lords were rewarded
with land.
If the land was neglected, the good and wise overlooked,
and grasping men put in power, then the lord was reprimanded.
Thus the emperor punished but did not attack,
while the feudal
lords attack but do not punish.
The protectors then intimidated
the feudal lords to attack other feudal lords.
The most illustrious of the protectors, Duke Huan of Qi, got
the feudal lords
to agree to a pledge which included first:
not
punishing dutiful sons nor putting aside heirs nor elevating concubines;
second: honoring the good and wise and training the capable;
third:
respecting the aged and being kind to the young, guests, and travelers;
fourth: not making offices hereditary, nor letting one man hold
more than one office
nor allowing a feudal lord to execute a counselor
solely on his own authority;
and fifth: not allowing diversion
of dikes nor prohibiting the sale of rice.
Today, complained Mencius,
the feudal lords violate all of these five injunctions.
Yet Mencius
concluded that the crime of encouraging a ruler to evil deeds
is small compared to the pandering to his unspoken evil desires.
Thus the counselors of the time offend against the feudal lords.
Mencius held that a good person would not even take from one
person to give to another,
let alone seek territory at the cost
of human lives.
To enrich a ruler, who is neither attracted to
the way
nor good to the people, is like enriching a tyrant.
When
about to place a great responsibility on a person, heaven may
test one with hardship
and frustrated efforts in order to toughen
one's nature and correct deficiencies.
People usually only mend
their ways after making mistakes.
Those whose minds are frustrated
learn how to innovate.
Mencius believed that those who understand their own nature
will know heaven;
by retaining the heart and nurturing their nature
they serve heaven.
He found no greater joy than finding upon self-examination
that he is being true to himself.
He taught the golden rule of
trying your best to treat others
as you would wish to be treated
yourself as the shortest path to goodness.
The best person does
not abandon what is right in adversity
nor depart from the way
in success.
In obscurity one can perfect one's own person;
in
prominence one can perfect the whole empire as well.
For Mencius
good government was not as important as good education,
because
the people fear good government; but they love good education.
Good government wins their wealth, but good education wins their
hearts.
Mencius believed it contrary to goodness to kill even
one person
and contrary to justice to take what one is not entitled
to.
The wise person knows everything but considers only what demands
attention urgent.
The good person loves everyone but devotes oneself
in close association with the good and wise.
Mencius pointed out how Duke Hui of Liang extended his ruthlessness
from those
he did not love to those he did by sending to war even
the young men he loved,
whereas a good person extends one's love
to those one does not love.
Mencius could find no just wars in
the Spring and Autumn Era
but only peers trying to punish one
another by war.
He considered those who thought of themselves
as military experts to be grave criminals.
The trouble with people,
he thought, was that they leave their own fields
to weed others'
fields, being exacting toward others but indulgent toward themselves.
Like Confucius, Mencius rejected high taxes and warfare;
he said
that those who are skillful in warfare deserve the severest punishment.
The sovereign of a state who loves humanity will have no enemy
in the world.
The sage achieves humane government by means of
education, not by means of weapons.
Mencius cited the expedition
of King Wu.
The king told the people not to fear, because he was
bringing peace to them, not war.
On hearing this, the people bowed
their heads and prostrated themselves to the ground.
The expression
"to battle" should mean "to rectify."
If everyone
wished to be rectified, what need would there be for war?
Mencius believed that human nature is innately good
and that
we need only discover the heart.
He criticized Mo-zi's doctrine
of universal love without distinctions,
advocating humanity that
discerns the proper distinctions in human relationships.
He recommended
humane government and felt that
justice is far more important
than utility and profit.
Mencius believed that virtue is inherent
in everyone's nature
and that therefore everyone is equal to everyone
else;
also the people are most important in the state,
and they
have the right to change their government.
1. Chun Ts'ew, with the Tso Chuen tr. James Legge, 9:27:2,
p. 534.
2. Ibid.
3. Lao-zi, Way Power Book (Dao De Jing) 33 tr. Sanderson
Beck in Wisdom Bible, p. 21.
4. Ibid., 8.
5. Ibid., 57.
6. Analects tr. Arthur Waley, 7:22.
7. Ibid., 4:8.
8. Ibid., 7:10.
9. Ibid., 12:19.
10. Ibid., 2:15.
11. Higher Education tr. Sanderson Beck and Ken Tsang in
Wisdom Bible, p. 40-41.
12. Basic Writings of Mo Tzu tr. Burton Watson, p. 41.
13. Ibid., p. 54.
14. Mencius tr. D. C. Lau, 1B:11, p. 70.
15. Ibid. 6A:6, p. 163.
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