This chapter has been published in the book Medieval Europe 610-1300.
For information on ordering click here.
India had a favorable balance of trade with the Roman empire in the first century CE, but they had their own internal conflicts under the Satavahana kingdom. In the northwest Iranian kings known as the Pahlavas were driven out by Scythians led by Kanishka (r. 78-101), who supported Buddhism and founded the Shaka era. Buddhist philosophers such as Parshva and Ashvaghosha were favored at his court. The new greater vehicle of Buddhism called Mahayana emphasized the bodhisattva saint who helps others, and this doctrine was explained in the Surangama Sutra, which warned of allurements from sex and ego. Ashvaghosha wrote the earliest Sanskrit drama, and his poem Buddhacharita described the life and teachings of the Buddha. His Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana distinguished suchness (bhutatathata) from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). He taught compassion for all beings and thus criticized the prejudices and inequities of the caste system. Prajnaparamita was translated into Chinese in 179 CE and discussed perfect wisdom. The bodhisattvas renounced their heavenly reward in order to serve the whole world.
Nagarjuna in the 2nd century CE founded the Madhyamika (Middle Path) school of Mahayana Buddhism, and some of his followers split off into the Yogachara philosophy. Nagarjuna discussed ethics in his Suhrllekha, recommending the transcendental virtues of charity, patience, energy, meditation, and wisdom, and he warned against being fettered by attachment to religious ceremonies, wrong views, and doubt. The Buddhist Text of the Excellent Golden Light advised kings to avoid fighting but to punish criminals. Buddhist Vasubandhu in the 4th century taught that only consciousness exists, and thus we create our own reality.
Buddhism took hold on the island of Sri Lanka, but there the Mahayana doctrine was suppressed in the 3rd century CE. The outstanding Tamil epic poem The Ankle Bracelet (Silappadikaram) was written about 200 CE by Prince Ilango Adigal. In this romantic story the faithful wife Kannaki proves that her executed husband did not steal the anklet, and the causes of the tragedy are explained as karmic effects from previous lives. This story inspires people to be more ethical and spiritual, and Kannaki came to be worshipped as a goddess of chastity in Sri Lanka and southern India. Sri Lanka remained Buddhist, and in the 5th century Buddhaghosha translated texts and explained the conduct, concentration, and wisdom of Buddhism in his Visuddhimagga.
The Jain philosopher Kunda Kunda of the Digambara sect also taught about karma and how one can be freed from it by meditating with pure thought, releasing desire and aversion. In The Perfect Law (Niyamsara), Kunda Kunda described the five vows of non-injury, truth, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession.
Gupta empire replaced tribal customs with the caste system, ruled over vassals, and suffered invasions from the White Huns in the 5th century. Harsha-vardhana (r. 606-647) gained control over northern India and promoted Hindu culture. The Chalukyas had a wide empire, but Muslim Arabs encroached in the west. The Tamil classic, The Kural by Tiru Valluvar contains moral proverbs on the traditional Hindu goals of dharma (virtue or justice), artha (success or wealth), and kama (love or pleasure). The mystical Vedanta philosopher Shankara emphasized non-dualism and elucidated Hindu scriptures. In the Crest-Jewel of Wisdom Shankara explained spiritual psychology.
Indian drama was analyzed by Bharata in the Natya Shastra. Early plays by Bhasa introduced the court jester, and The Little Clay Cart portrays aristocrats and merchants, enabling audiences to see ethical consequences of various actions. Plays of the great Kalidasa contain mythic elements with heavenly nymphs. The title character in Shakuntala becomes the mother of India's founding emperor Bharata. Rakshasa's Ring by Vishakhadatta portrayed the political manipulations of prime minister Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, in the court of Chandragupta. The powerful ruler Harsha not only patronized the arts, but he also wrote plays himself. Bhavabhuti in the early 8th century was the court poet in Kanauj. His plays portray courtly love and romance. These plays from India show that in a period of many centuries when few plays have remained from any other culture, theater could still entertain and enlighten many people. Indian literature also described the consequences of actions by karma, and the Puranas, especially the popular Srimad Bhagavatam, portrayed the examples of the divine in human incarnations as Vishnu becomes Krishna.
Hindu religion regained strength during the two and a half centuries preceding the Muslim invasions that began about 1000. This era saw much fighting between Hindu kingdoms, and even some Jains as soldiers justified killing enemies. The Brahmin caste dominated religion, education, land ownership, and was favored by law. Most women worked in the home or in the fields. The erotic art found on temples indicates a less puritanical attitude toward sexuality among Hindus as Buddhism declined, and Tantra methods were developed.
Tibet was influenced by Buddhism from the 6th century and adopted it as the state religion in 791 though conflicts remained between Buddhists and the followers of the native Bon-po religion. The Tibetan Book of the Dead explained how to become liberated from reincarnation by being aware as one dies. Atisha (982-1054) came to Tibet from India in 1042 and reformed Tantric practices by introducing celibacy and a higher morality among the priests; he founded the yellow-hat Geluk-pa order. The Kagyu-pa school had a series of teachers that included Naropa (1016-1100), Marpa (1012-1096), Milarepa (1040-1123), Lharje (1077-1152), whose book listed yogic precepts, and Tusum Khyenpa (1110-1193), who founded the black-hat Karma-pa order in 1147.
In 1000 Muslims led by Ghazni ruler Mahmud invaded India and looted immense treasure. A Pala empire in Bengal dominated the east until the Muslims conquered them in the early 13th century. Ghuzz Turks under Muhammad Ghuri attacked the Gujurat kingdom in 1178 and overcame organized Hindu resistance by 1192. In 1221 Mongols led by Genghis Khan crossed the Indus into the Punjab. In the south the Cholas fought the Pandyas and the Chalukyas. Buddhism remained strong in Sri Lanka under king Vijayabahu (r. 1055-1110). Hemachandra (1088-1172) converted Gujurat's Chalukya king Kumarapala to Jainism, and Jain king Bijjala's minister, the Shaivite Basava (1106-1167), argued against violence and caste prejudice. Sri Lanka king Parakramabahu I (r. 1153-1186) used heavy taxation to rebuild Pulatthinagara and Anuradhapura that had been destroyed by the Cholas, and he developed trade with Burma. In the 13th century the Hoysalas fought the Pandyas for empire as Chola power decreased. The Sufi poet Amir Khusrau described how Islam used the sword to triumph over Hindu idolatry. By 1300 invading Mongols, now Muslims, had taken over Delhi and subjugated the Hindus under Islamic law.
The earlier Han dynasty came to an end in China as they had trouble producing an heir, and the revolutionary Confucian Wang Mang took power in 9 CE. His attempts to control the economy while hoarding gold failed; as millions died from famine and the turmoil, peasants joined with Han nobles in a wide-spread rebellion that overthrew and killed Wang Mang in 23 CE. The Eastern Han dynasty moved the capital to Luoyang and expanded to the south, overcoming numerous rebellions by the Yue people. The Han army reconquered central Asia by defeating the Xiongnu, and sons of barbarian leaders were educated in Chinese culture. The Chinese developed iron into steel, the shoulder collar for draft animals, the wheelbarrow, porcelain dishes, and paper. Population increased again, and 30,000 were studying in the imperial academy by 146. Eunuchs gained increasing power and wealth, which they passed on to adopted sons as corruption flourished at court. In 184 Daoist healers led rebellions in Sichuan and in the east as Zhang Jue promised equality and common ownership to 360,000 followers wearing yellow turbans.
After 220 China became divided into three kingdoms that invaded Korea, Vietnam, and the southwest. In the 4th century Buddhism spread rapidly in China. Later Qin ruler Yao Xing (r. 393-415) sustained 3,000 Buddhist monks as Kumarajiva in Chang'an directed translations of Buddhist scriptures. The Martial Emperor (Wu Di) of Liang patronized Buddhism in the first half of the 6th century. However, Confucians won a struggle with Buddhists and Daoists as the Northern Qi reunified north China in 577. Sui Wen Di (r. 581-604) reunited all of China and promoted reforms and Buddhism. The Sui conquered Chen and tried to impose morality. Sui Wen Di stored grain to prevent famines and had canals built with convict labor. Confucian schools were closed in 601. Wen's son Yang Di (r. 604-617) was even more extravagant in building but in 606 instituted the examination system based on Confucian classics. Yang Di's biggest mistake was launching a major war against Koguryo (Korea) in 612 with 1,132,800 men. People rebelled when he broke his promise to end the war, and the fleeing Sui emperor was assassinated in 618.
General Li Yuan founded the Tang dynasty (618-907) with the help of his son Li Shimin, who took over and reigned as Tang Tai Zong (r. 626-649). He expanded Confucian education and kept Buddhists out of politics. The Tang army subjugated the Eastern Turks in 630, and 100,000 defeated Turks were resettled in southern China. The Tang helped Silla dominate Koguryo and Paekche in Korea from 619 to 643, but then the Tang had to retreat from this imperialistic adventure. Tai Zong's son Gao Zong was dominated by the concubine he made Empress Wu. She promoted reforms according to her Daoist ideas, suspending most examinations for ten years. She tried to start a new dynasty, but the Tang dynasty was restored and flourished under Xuan Zong (r. 712-756). Building of Buddhist and Daoist temples was suspended, and 30,000 monks and nuns were returned to lay life, though the Pure Land practice of chanting and Chan concentration on meditation developed. New laws were promulgated in 715.
The Tang had conflicts with Tibet, and the central government declined, though De Zong (r. 779-805) managed to rebuild the palace army to 100,000 men commanded by eunuchs. In the 9th century China's total military increased to nearly a million men. Daoist Wu Zong (r. 840-846) confiscated the wealth of the tax-exempt monasteries, freeing their 150,000 slaves (dependents), and returning 260,000 monks and nuns to lay life. Yet the Buddhist monasteries had been providing many useful services to the poor, the sick, and the aged. Banditry and rebellion eventually brought the end of the Tang dynasty and a period of regional governments.
Another general Song Tai Zu founded the Song dynasty (960-1279) but put regional governments under civilian authority. Military expenses increased and by 1041 were 80% of government spending. Buddhism became corrupted by selling certification of monks. Paper money, iron production, and increased rice yields added to prosperity. However, the status of women declined as foot-binding became a vogue, and prostitution flourished in cities. Printing began using moveable type about 1030. The poet Wang Anshi became prime minister and reformed lending, taxes, government employment, and established public education and social welfare; but conservatives in the north managed to reverse his reforms by 1085. The multi-talented Su Shi criticized Wang Anshi for not being liberal enough and criticized the killing of female babies. The Jurchen helped the Song fight the Liao, but as the Jin they took over the northern capital in 1127. Gao Zong (r. 1127-1162) continued the Song dynasty in the south and paid the Jin tribute. In the 11th and 12th centuries the Neo-Confucians Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, the brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, and Zhu Xi emphasized liberal education and humane government, developing the ethics that would guide Chinese culture for the next eight centuries.
Genghis Khan invaded the Xia and conquered most of Qin. After
Genghis Khan was killed in 1227, East Asia went to his son Ogodei
(r. 1229-1241). Song had a less
militarized culture, and the Mongol
invaders overcame them by 1279. The Mongol
empire used paper money and civil service examinations. Under
Kublai Khan they replaced the Song with the Yuan dynasty. Italian
traveler Marco Polo served Kublai Khan from 1275 to 1291 and wrote
about his court and his admiration for Christian ethics.
The cultures of southeast Asia were influenced by both China and India, blending them with their own indigenous traditions. Vietnam fought the Chinese and were often governed by them. Buddhism spread in Vietnam, and it became independent of China in 939. Cambodia struggled with the Vietnamese and built impressive temples in the Angkor era in the 9th and 10th centuries. Burma was more influenced by Hindu culture; like Sri Lanka, it adopted Theravada Buddhism. Javanese culture in Bali developed Hindu religion in the arts with puppet theater, gamelan music, and batik textiles. By 1300 the Mongol empire had extended its power into most of southeast Asia, bringing Islam.
The early Korean kingdoms of Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla were influenced by Chinese culture and received Buddhism in the 4th century. After fighting off a massive Chinese invasion, Koguryo built a wall from 631 to 647. When Koguryo and Paekche invaded Silla in 655, the latter formed an alliance with Tang China and was able to dominate the peninsula and even drive the Chinese out in 677. The Silla government instituted civil service examinations in 788. Rebellions began against the Silla in the late 9th century and by 935 Wang Kon founded the Koryo dynasty from which the name Korea comes. He promoted Buddhism, and the Koryo used Chinese administrative methods. A large Khitan army invaded Koryo in 993, and they fought them and the Liao until they built walls around the capital and in the north. Iron coins were used in the 11th century. Koryo defended itself from a Jurchen invasion in 1104; but the power of military families increased in the 12th century, and government slaves revolted in 1198. Mongol invasions of Koryo began in 1231, and they eventually took over the country, as Mongol princesses married Koryo royalty. A national university system was reorganized under King Chungnyol (r. 1275-1308).
The ancient culture of Japan practiced human sacrifice, but Korean and Chinese influence added subtlety to the native Shinto religion that worshipped the Emperor. Prince Shotoku (574-622) particularly applied more enlightened Buddhist and Confucian ethics to government. Fujiwara clan founder Nakatomi Kamatari implemented reforms in 646 by eliminating private ownership of land, which was distributed to cultivators equally; weapons were put in government storehouses. By 692 Japan had 545 Buddhist monasteries and shrines. Laws favored the Emperor and hereditary aristocrats, and the Tang-like reforms were promulgated in the Taiho code of 702. Females and slaves got only two-thirds as much land; but males had to provide labor or military service. Minister Oshikatsu retained popular support by reducing taxes and the farmers' government labor from sixty to thirty days. After Empress Koken (r. 749-758) let her lover, the Buddhist priest Dokyo, govern until her death in 770, the council refused to put a woman on the throne.
The Heian era (794-1192) gave Japan four centuries of relative peace. Saicho (Dengyo Daishi) founded Tendai Buddhism from the similar Chinese Tiantai, and Kukai (Kobo Daishi) founded the Shingon sect of esoteric Buddhism in 816. For three centuries Japan was dominated by the Emperor and the Fujiwara clan. Sei Shonagon's Pillow Book was written as a diary; but the great classic of this era is the long Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, who described the subtleties of Japanese aristocrats in a multi-generational story of the 10th century. Tendai Buddhism split in 933, and in the 12th century the powerful monasteries had their own armies. Yoritomi eventually won a civil war between clans and became shogun in 1192 to begin the militaristic feudal era. Yoritomi's son was forced to abdicate and was assassinated and replaced by the Hojo family of the Taira clan that held the chief political position until 1333; often a child was made shogun so that the Hojo regent held the power, though Yasutoki established a state council for advice in 1226. Feudal law was established in 1232 and tried to be impartial, allowing women to own land.
Following the Buddhist schools of China, Honen (1133-1212) founded the Jodo sect (Pure Land) and Eisai (1141-1215) the Rinzai Zen based on Chan. Nichiren (1222-1282), like the Pure Land of Honen and Shinran (1173-1262), emphasized chanting the nembutsu to Amida Buddha. Nichiren gained credibility when he correctly prophesied the Mongol invasions. The Japanese believed that divine winds (kamikaze) produced the storms that helped them defeat the Mongol, Chinese, and Korean armies that invaded Kyushu in 1274 and again in 1281.
Ethiopia was influenced by Christianity very early and was part of the Roman empire. In the 4th century the Axumites conquered Kush, and King Ezana made Christianity the state religion. In a 651 peace treaty the Nubians agreed to tolerate a Muslim mosque and provide 360 slaves annually to the Muslim imam. Nubians co-existed with the Muslims, but in the 12th and 13th centuries they came into conflict with Egypt. The Ethiopian empire helped spread education in its monasteries.
The Sahara desert was a natural barrier but could be crossed on camels for trade in salt, gold, and slaves. Gold attracted Muslims to Ghana. After a Juddala chief went on pilgrimage to Mecca in 1036, Sunni doctrine was brought to Juddala by ibn Yasin. In 1056 the Sudanese kingdom of Takrur converted to Islam and aided the Almoravids against the Juddala. Ghana's capital Kumbi fell to the Almoravids in 1076. Ghana declined, and Kumbi was sacked in 1203 by Soso chief Sumaguru Kante of the Kaniaga. Sumaguru also conquered the Mandinkas, but he was defeated and killed by Sundiata in 1235. During the reign (1255-1270) of Sundiata's son Wali the Mali kingdom included Songhai. The Mali kingdom also expanded under Sakura, who usurped power in 1285. Little is known about most of sub-Saharan Africa before 1300.
By the third century CE Mayan civilization had developed populated cities in Mexico and central America. Sporadic wars between different kingdoms were recorded until the ninth century. Captured rival leaders seem to have been sacrificed while other prisoners were enslaved. After 822 events were not recorded as power was apparently decentralized. Popol Vuh recounted the migration of the Quiché Maya to the north and their conquest of the Pokomam Maya in the east in the 13th century. According to this, an early race of people had no hearts and minds and was destroyed by a flood. The next race learned how to play ball and to clear the land for gardening. The current race was created from corn flour, but their omniscience was reduced. Gods soon only appeared in spirit form, and sacrifices were used to appease them. The Quichés were victorious in war and forced other tribes to pay tribute. Wars continued to occur, and the rulers were recorded.
Eight-Deer founded the Toltec empire in central Mexico in 1030, but he was defeated, captured and sacrificed in 1063. Topiltzin, son of a Chichimec leader, claimed to be the divine Quetzalcoatl and ruled at Tula 1153-1175. According to legend, Quetzalcoatl did not sacrifice men or animals, and he prohibited war and violence. Angry magicians caused Quetzalcoatl (Topiltzin) to flee Tula and set himself on fire, becoming the morning star (Venus). Thus Tula fell about 1175. Mexica groups and Chichimecs (Dog People) then ruled the region for the next two centuries. By the end of the 13th century the Aztecs had settled in Chapultepec. On the continent north of Mexico probably less than ten million people were spread out in villages, living tribally and close to nature, hunting, fishing, gathering food, and farming.
After winning the civil war against Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BC, Octavian Caesar gained Egypt as his private domain and soon consolidated his power as imperator over an empire of a hundred million people. He was given the name Augustus, and he managed to keep the peace and reduce the army. By 23 BC he was truly Emperor as he could convene the Senate, propose legislation, and oversee the judiciary while he personally controlled Egypt, Gaul, Spain, and Syria through his governors. He reinstituted election of city magistrates and tried to control bribery. Any rebellions were suppressed by force. Augustus was elected censor of morals, and Ovid's books were removed from libraries. Augustus sponsored public games and boasted that 3,500 African beasts had been slaughtered. He reduced the public dole in Rome to 200,000, and he attempted unsuccessfully to increase the population with social laws promoting marriage and family. Germans in the west managed to become independent of the empire. After his grandsons died, Augustus was succeeded by his adopted son Tiberius in 14 CE.
In a national epic Virgil's Aeneid portrayed early Rome as a heritage from ancient Trojan warriors. Their enmity with Carthage is derived from Aeneas betraying Queen Dido, and the afterlife is portrayed in a Platonic manner with rewards and punishments according to divine justice. Horace wrote poetic satires, odes, and epistles criticizing those who seek wealth and favoring ethical values of moderation. His letter on the art of poetry is a classic on esthetic taste that values moral sense. Propertius wrote poetry about his experience in love; but it was the poet Ovid, who really taught the art of love to the Romans. His advice is frank and detailed. He also wrote on the remedies for those who have suffered from love. In his poem Metamorphoses Ovid retold numerous myths and legends showing how life's changes teach us; but the obvious faults of the gods and goddesses would make Roman religion vulnerable to a more philosophical theology. For having offended the moralistic Augustus, Ovid had to spend his last years in bitter exile.
Tiberius (r. 14-37) maintained the Roman empire as Germanicus overcame the resistance in Germany. Tiberius then sent his rival Germanicus to Syria, where he was probably poisoned by Piso. Tiberius held on to his power with numerous treason trials and executions. For his last ten years he ruled from retirement at Capri, where he seems to have engaged in perversions with his successor Caligula.
King Herod ruled Judea from 37 BC to his death in 4 BC and used his friendship with Augustus to increase his power. He used taxes for extensive building but later lowered taxes to regain popularity with those who criticized him for supporting pagan religion. Herod was very suspicious of conspiracies and had several of his relatives executed. He was succeeded by his son Archelaus, who ruled for ten years during which the Roman army had to suppress Jewish rebellions. In 6 CE Augustus banished Archelaus and appointed a prefect to govern Judea.
Aside from the revolutionary zealots, there were three sects in Judaism in this era. The largest group was the liberal Pharisees, and their outstanding teachers were the tolerant Hillel and the strict Shammai. Hillel emphasized love, peace, and learning. The Sadducees were more conservative aristocrats and did not believe in immortality. The mystical Essenes definitely believed souls are eternal, and they shared their property in community so that none were rich or poor. Some of the Essene men lived in a community by the Dead Sea, where they left writings found in 1947 that describe their purification practices and spiritual rules for living in the community. Two years of training were required before one could become a regular member. They expected the Messiah to come and help the children of light defeat the children of darkness. This Essene community was destroyed by the Romans during the Jewish revolt in 68 CE.
Philo Judaeus of Alexandria also described the ethical lives of the Essene community as well as the Jewish therapeutae in Egypt. Philo wrote extensively about Jewish law, always emphasizing ethics and the virtues that bring freedom over slavery that comes from desires. Philo criticized Flaccus, the Roman governor of Egypt, and described his own attempted embassy to Emperor Caligula that was ignored.
In Judea John the Baptist taught repentance and baptized people as a single converting experience rather than as a regular ritual. Jesus was baptized by John and called twelve disciples. He also taught repentance and forgiveness of sins, and he astounded people by healing the sick, expelling demons, perceiving their thoughts, and performing other miracles. Jesus preached with authority the sovereignty of God and a spiritual ethics of love. He went beyond the justice of the law to mercy, patience, and even loving one's enemies. Jesus exhorted people to seek God and do what is right rather than worry about money and physical things. Jesus often taught in parables that used practical metaphors for spiritual teachings. The expansion of heaven is like a seed, but it must be nurtured to bear fruit; for many seeds die on the path or in the rocks or are strangled by the weeds of materialism. Jesus sent out his disciples to preach also and instructed them not to acquire money. Peter recognized the Christ in Jesus; but in the next moment Jesus said that Satan had taken hold of him because he could not accept that Jesus would be killed. Jesus taught them to forgive and to pray persistently. He criticized the scholars and Pharisees but was well received by the poor.
Jesus prophesied that he would be killed but would rise again on the third day. During the Passover festival he was welcomed into Jerusalem, where he taught in the temple after driving out those doing business. He cleverly answered treacherous questions, taught parables of the sovereignty of God, criticized the hypocrisy of some, and prophesied the difficult times ahead that in a war would destroy the temple, which did in fact occur in 70 CE. Jesus celebrated the Passover with his disciples and explained that his body and blood were being sacrificed for them. Their partaking of bread and wine in this way would become the central ritual of the new religion, giving believers a symbolic but tangible experience of their oneness with Christ and providing a more spiritual substitute for the old animal sacrifices. Jesus demonstrated his teachings of loving enemies by not resisting by any means of violence during his arrest, trial, and punishment. Luke makes clear that the main reason why he was crucified by the Romans was because he told people not to pay tax to Caesar, and others indicated that they feared he might lead a revolt as the king of the Jews. The amazing ability of Jesus to heal his body and return to it even after death astounded his followers and proved to them his divinity.
John added more spiritual concepts of the Christ as Logos or meaning of the universe and emphasized the teaching of loving one another. The book of Revelation is an angry prophecy directed against the persecuting Roman empire that would be overcome and transformed by the Christians in the coming centuries before a millennium of Christian culture. Another disciple, Thomas, carried the teachings of Jesus to Parthia and India. His collection of sayings by Jesus was found in Egypt and emphasizes knowing God. Thus these heterodox sects were called Gnostics. The Gospel of the Ebionites indicates that some of them were vegetarians.
After having seen the resurrected Jesus, the disciples met and elected Matthias to replace Judas Iscariot, who had committed suicide when he saw what happened to Jesus. Ten times the twelve disciples were present fifty days after the Passover when the Holy Spirit enabled them to speak in many languages and understand the teachings. Peter was accepted as the leader, and he advised them to be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. Three thousand people were baptized that day and joined the fellowship by sharing their possessions. Peter helped a lame beggar walk and began to preach, reprimanding those who had not believed Jesus. Peter was questioned by the Council but was released. However, the Council had Stephen stoned to death as the rabbi Saul approved. Saul then arrested many followers. Peter criticized Simon for offering money for the Holy Spirit, and this corruption came to be called simony. Saul was on his way to arrest followers in Damascus when he was struck down, heard a voice, and was blind for three days, during which time he accepted Jesus as Christ. Saul changed his name to Paul, and now he had to flee from the Jews. Peter had a vision he could eat all kinds of animals, and he also ate with the uncircumcised. James, the brother of Jesus, was another important leader, and a letter attributed to him emphasized the importance of works as well as faith.
Paul and Barnabas preached in Antioch, where the followers were first called Christians. Paul traveled, preached, and wrote letters to congregations of converts in major cities such as Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, and Rome, developing his theology of Christ as savior. When Paul returned to Jerusalem, he was beaten and arrested. Brought before the governor at Caesarea, Paul as a Roman citizen appealed to Caesar. Paul was taken to Rome, where he preached for two years while under house arrest. About 64 both Paul and Peter were executed by Roman authority. Paul preached that Christians should overcome temptations such as lust, anger, and greed. He recommended marriage but advised women to submit to their husbands.
Some Christians became martyrs when they refused to give up their new religion and worship the Roman gods and Emperor. Clement was the third bishop of Rome from 92 to 101, and he urged the Christians to follow what their majority commands. Emperors Trajan and Hadrian did not allow the hunting of Christians but accepted that they must be punished if they refused to deny their religion. Valentinus taught a Gnostic doctrine in Rome, and in 144 Marcion was excommunicated for having similar views. Gnostic works were excluded when the New Testament was codified by the end of the second century. The martyrdom of Polycarp at Smyrna about 155 so moved people by his faith that the proconsul suspended the persecution. A popular allegory called The Shepherd of Hermas was read aloud in many churches.
Justin Martyr was converted by witnessing the faith of martyrs and wrote a philosophical defense of Christianity for Emperor Antoninus Pius and the Roman Senate to make them aware of the evil done so that they would stop doing it. Justin argued that Christians should be judged for what they do, not merely for their name. In 165 Justin and other Christians were beheaded for refusing to sacrifice to the Roman gods. Tatian (110-172) studied with Justin Martyr at Rome and founded an ascetic sect emphasizing self-control called the Encratites; they refrained from marriage, eating meat, and drinking wine. The Athenian Athenagoras was another philosopher who was converted to Christianity, and he sent a defense of the new religion to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus about 177.
The short reign (37-41) of Caligula quickly degenerated as his behavior became more uncontrolled and irrational until he was finally murdered. The bribed praetorian guard made Claudius Emperor, and he proved to be more than the dolt people thought he was. Claudius allowed the freed slaves Pallas and Callistus to acquire immense wealth as they administered the finances and judicial petitions. Claudius invaded Britain and established Roman government there, and he generally tolerated Jews in the empire. Claudius believed that Rome's empire fared better than Athens and Sparta had, because they extended citizenship on the frontiers. He restrained his Syrian governor from intervening in conflicts between the Armenians, Iberians, and Parthians. After his wife Messalina was executed for treason, Claudius married Agrippina; but she apparently poisoned him so that her son Nero could be Emperor.
Nero was only 16 when he began to rule in 54; but he was dominated by his mother Agrippina and was assisted by the philosopher Seneca, who became quite wealthy. Nero had the harbor restoration begun by Claudius completed. At first he banned capital punishment, but in 61 the execution of slaves was allowed. However, when his debauchery and extravagant gifts exhausted the treasury, like Caligula, Nero became a ruthless tyrant. The Roman army maintained imperial control from Britain to Syria. Nero had his mother Agrippina murdered in 59 and his wife Octavia three years later. Seneca no longer could restrain Nero and retired. Accused of wanting Rome destroyed so that he could rebuild it in his image, Nero blamed the catastrophic fire of 64 on the Christians, who called him the anti-Christ. A plot against him was squelched in 65, and Seneca was ordered to commit suicide that year. The megalomaniac Nero was finally murdered in 68 as he was being replaced by Governor Galba from Spain.
Seneca wrote eight gory tragedies based on Greek plays that show family members murdering each other for power and because of jealousy. Octavia dramatizes Seneca's attempt to stop Nero from murdering his wife; it was probably written by an imitator soon after Seneca's death. In his philosophical writings Seneca popularized Stoicism. He distinguished virtues from good fortune and believed the good never suffer evil but only misfortune. While in exile at Corsica in 41 Seneca wrote a letter of consolation to his mother Helvia, saying the wise are not elated by prosperity nor depressed by adversity. Most influential was his long essay On Anger, a temporary insanity. The remedy is reasoned judgment to prevent taking revenge. In addition to many letters in which he often discussed the moral life, Seneca wrote essays on providence, firmness, tranquility of mind, clemency, the happy life, and benefits. He always emphasized developing virtue and control over the passions. He admitted that his acquiring of great wealth was not of the best, but he believed riches teach moderation, liberality, diligence, orderliness, and grandeur.
In Judea conditions deteriorated as brigandage increased, and governor Florus took 17 talents from the Temple as taxes. In 65 Jews refused to pay taxes, and the Zealots took control of the fortress at Masada. The Jewish war against Rome began the next year in Jerusalem with a civil war as the Zealots took over the city. Vespasian refrained from attacking divided Jerusalem for two years, but by 70 amid famine Josephus recorded that a million Jews had died as the Romans captured Jerusalem. Masada held out for three more years, and then 960 people there committed suicide. As the Sanhedrin dissolved, the Sadducean party disappeared. In synagogues ordinances and their interpretations were studied as Midrash and Talmud.
The struggle for the imperial throne in 69 also caused a civil war. Otho became Emperor as Galba was beheaded, but he committed suicide three months later. Large numbers were killed, because quarter was refused. Vitellius exhausted the treasury and sympathy by his torturing and executions. During these civil wars many provincials were given citizenship. In the same year Vitellius was replaced by Vespasian, who ruled for ten years until 79. He increased taxes and consolidated the empire while granting Latin rights to Spain; his honest justice and reforms restored civility in the empire. Titus, son of Vespasian, was Emperor for two years but also died of illness and was succeeded by his brother Domitian, who crushed rebellions using military force. Domitian strictly enforced laws and increased military pay while reducing the number of troops. However, his extortions, confiscation of property, and many executions eventually led to his being murdered in 96.
The decline of literature is lamented in the anonymous treatise On the Sublime. Chaereas and Callirhoe is the earliest Hellenistic adventure novel and celebrated romantic love. In Seneca's Apocolocyntosis Augustus condemns Claudius to hell. The Satyricon by Petronius described the debauchery of Nero's Rome. Persius died young but left behind Satires exposing how unphilosophical most people are, and Martial used wit to make fun of Romans in his Epigrams. In Civil War Lucan wrote of Julius Caesar's "legality conferred on crime;" but it was unfinished, because he was forced by Nero to commit suicide at age 25. Statius in Thebaid described the fratricidal war between the sons of Oedipus in which even the gods are petty and promote war.
Quintilian's Education of an Orator systematically analyzes good education from the study of grammar to the subtleties of oratory. Quintilian emphasized the development of character and the importance of the teacher's example. The historian Tacitus also wrote a dialog on oratory in which he lamented that rhetoric had declined since the era of Cicero because of the authoritarian empire. Yet the emphasis on rhetoric reflected the importance of Roman law.
Apollonius was born in Tyana of Cappadocia about the same year as Jesus. He was educated by a Pythagorean and decided to abstain from meat, wine, and women. He spent five years in silence and was said to know all languages including those of animals. He held to his prayer to have little and want nothing. He traveled to Babylon and advised its king on his way to India, where he went to learn. Apollonius advised Vespasian to rule with generosity and self-restraint; he believed land was polluted by war, and he recommended appointing governors by merit. Apollonius went to Rome and was arrested by Domitian but was acquitted. He advised his disciples to be free of jealousy, spite, hatred, slander, and enmity.
Nerva was the first Emperor freely selected by the Senate, and he quickly reformed the abuses of Domitian and selected the capable Spaniard Trajan to succeed him. Trajan won two wars against Dacia and appropriated their considerable amounts of gold and silver. In the Senate the younger Pliny praised Trajan's lawfulness in contrast to Domitian. Trajan continued the child welfare program begun by Nerva. Trajan invaded Armenia, and about 116 many Jews were killed in rebellions.
Dio was born in Prusa of Bithynia and became known as Chrysostom (meaning "golden mouth") for his oratorical skill. Dio admired Diogenes and lived like a poor Cynic, traveling and doing manual labor. In his Discourses he argued against flattery and for truthfulness. He considered it a sign of fear to carry a weapon. He said slavery results from self-indulgence, greed, and ambition. He argued against war and urged cities to cooperate with each other in friendship, because enmity is very disadvantageous for all. He brought concessions from Emperor Trajan to Prusa and promoted civic improvements. He believed prostitution was shameful and should be illegal.
Plutarch wrote extensively, and 48 of his biographies of noble Greeks and Romans still exist. In his ethical essays he applied Plato's philosophy, emphasizing the importance of using reason to rule the more sensual emotions. He recommended studying poetry as a preparation for philosophy. Self-knowledge is the best defense against deceptive flattery. True friendship is virtuous, intimate, and useful. He blamed civil discord and despotism on luxury and extravagance. He believed the greedy and avaricious suffer from "mental poverty." Plutarch argued against the eating of meat.
Epictetus was born to a slave woman but was educated in Rome by the Stoic Musonius Rufus, because his master was Nero's secretary. Epictetus gained his freedom and taught philosophy. He left Rome when Domitian banned philosophers from Italy in 89. He taught in Epirus while living very simply. Epictetus was a Stoic and advised using the rational faculty for differentiating what is within our power from what is not. What can be controlled by will is what is within our power; all else is external. Epictetus encouraged people to be citizens of the world or cosmopolitan, because we are all part of one community and children of God. Only the educated are truly free. In addition to learning, study and practice are required to change bad habits. Only those who understand the good know how to love. All experience is a challenge to our goodwill, a test, and education. When something is taken away, remember that God gives all. Even when Epictetus was a slave, he believed he was free, because he controlled his own will.
Hadrian (r. 117-138) was governor of Syria at Antioch when Trajan adopted him as his heir. Hadrian abandoned the territories in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria that Trajan had annexed. Hadrian forgave debts owed the imperial treasury for the past fifteen years, and he made Roman administration more professional. Salvius Julianus codified the laws now made by imperial edicts. Some rights of minors, women, and slaves were protected; but the law differentiated an upper class (honestiores) from the lower (humiliores). The wealthy tended to control regional governments, and hereditary aristocracy developed. Hadrian tightened military discipline and attended to problems personally by traveling, reducing rebellions. However, his prohibiting circumcision provoked a revolt led by the Messianic Simon Bar-Kochba in Judea, and Dio Cassius reported that 580,000 were killed by war and famine from 132 to 135. Hadrian chose the wealthy senator Aurelius Antoninus to succeed him and had him adopt young Marcus Aurelius.
Antoninus used his imperial army to crush rebellions in various places and had a wall built in Britain. He demanded only moderate tribute, and confiscations became rare. Corrupt administrators were prosecuted, and their children regained their estates if the money was returned to the provincials. Antoninus was praised for managing the empire well from Rome. Marcus Aurelius had been trained to be Emperor by Antoninus, who died in 161. Marcus shared his throne with Lucius Commodus, who went to Antioch to command a war against the Parthians. Marcus limited gladiatorial spectacles and ruled moderately, rewarding good and pardoning bad. Lucius died in 168, and Marcus used diplomacy to resolve wars with invading Germans while a plague devastated the empire. While fighting in the north Marcus was treated for illness with opium by the physician Galen. Marcus made his son Commodus co-Emperor in 177 and was succeeded by him three years later.
Marcus Aurelius wrote down thoughts to himself, beginning with the character traits he learned from others, and describing his ideas on living according to reason, Nature, and the will of heaven. He endeavored to serve justice and the common good. He suggested thinking of the universe as an organic whole with one soul. We are made to help each other, but each person's self has sovereign rights. In considering any action one should ask what the consequences may be.
Juvenal in his Sixteen Satires exposed the moral laxity of Rome, and lamented how much dishonesty had increased so as to become more common than honesty. The novels of the second century indicate the popularity of the Isis cult. Apuleius in The Golden Ass described how Lucius has to experience the animal nature when magic makes him into an ass; but after many experiences and a digression on Cupid and Psyche, he is restored by the goddess Isis and begins to purify himself for initiation and its mystical experience. Lucian became a lawyer but earned his living lecturing and wrote humorous stories, dialogs, and essays that parodied various philosophical schools, religious cults, and Roman myths, even how the unscrupulous could take advantage of Christians who shared their possessions.
Commodus ended the frontier wars of his father Marcus Aurelius; but he was extremely corrupt in his debauchery and had many people executed for their wealth. The physician Galen studied human anatomy and catalogued numerous drugs. Finally the tyrannical Commodus was murdered by his wife Marcia. Pertinax reversed the corruption and oppression but was murdered after 86 days by soldiers no longer allowed to plunder. The wealthy Julianus grabbed power but was executed by the Senate after 66 days as they declared the commander Septimius Severus Emperor. He invaded the Parthians in an expensive campaign and subjugated Byzantium. In a civil war he defeated the rebellion of Albinus. Severus paid soldiers well; but in the empire slaves were mistreated, and bandits thrived.
When Severus died in 211, he was succeeded by his son Caracalla, who murdered his brother Geta and 20,000 he suspected of supporting him. Caracalla doubled soldiers' pay but debased coins and doubled taxes. Citizenship was extended to all free men to gain tax. The adulterer Caracalla executed adulterers and pursued a treacherous foreign policy until he was assassinated and replaced by Praetorian Prefect Macrinus. He alienated the army and was killed in 218. Elagabalus became Emperor; but he was so degenerate that soldiers killed him four years later. The Roman Senate made Alexander Severus Emperor at age 13. Ulpian reformed Roman law but was killed by praetorians who resented their loss of privileges. Alexander ended the abuses of Elagabalus and applied the golden rule with religious tolerance. The Persian Sasanian dynasty tried to regain its empire. The army mutinied against the discipline of Alexander Severus and killed him in 235. In the next half century many Emperors struggled for power, subdued rebellions, and fought wars with invading Persians, Goths, and Germans, all of which caused famines, plagues, and disruption of agriculture and commerce.
The Patriarch Judah unified a compendium of oral traditions as the Mishnah. Irenaeus mediated the dispute over the mystical Montanists and refuted doctrines of the Gnostics. Tertullian wrote a defense of Christianity for the Roman rulers, arguing that killing innocent martyrs converts even more like himself, and he argued against killing in war and for patience. Clement of Alexandria wrote The Exhortation to Conversion. His Educator aimed at developing ethical habits, and in Miscellanies he applied philosophy to encourage Christians to gain knowledge. Origen succeeded his teacher Clement. His mother prevented him from becoming a martyr when his father was beheaded in 202. Origen castrated himself so as to instruct freely young female catechumens. He was tortured during the Decian persecution. In On Principles Origen implied that souls exist before birth, and their bodies reflect their previous experiences. He believed all souls, even fallen angels of devils, will be restored through Christ eventually. In a long work Origen answered the criticisms of Christianity by the Epicurean Celsus, arguing that Christianity makes its adherents act more ethically. Hippolytus criticized bishops of Rome and caused a schism. After the Decian persecution of Christians (249-251) penance was given to those who had accepted Roman rituals, and controversy split the church over the lapsed Christians.
The prophet Mani was born in Babylonia in 216 and taught a dualistic religion in Persia. He died in prison in 274 or 277, and his disciples spread his religion even though they were persecuted by Persian and Roman officials. Mani taught liberation from reincarnation through purification and recognized Zarathustra, Buddha, and Jesus as previous messengers of God. He wrote books, but most of them were eventually lost.
Plotinus (205-270) developed the philosophy of Neo-Platonism in his Enneads. He concentrated on the soul, purifying the lower self by practicing virtue and then using dialectic to transcend the emotions and approach God. His student Porphyry wrote biographies of Plotinus and Pythagoras, promoted the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and tried to purify Roman religion.
The Greek novels Daphnis and Chloe by Longus, The Ethiopian Story by Heliodorus, the Alexander Romance, and The Story of Apollonius King of Tyre indicate that romance adventures were becoming popular, and they affirm the value of chastity before marriage.
Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius with more legions than ever suppressed rebellions in the empire. Diocletian implemented wage and price controls in 301. Galerius persuaded Diocletian to force Christians to sacrifice or be punished, and Diocletian retired in 305. The next year Constantine was acclaimed Emperor by his army in Britain, and for several years several rival Emperors struggled for power. While persecution continued in the East, in the West Christianity was more tolerated. In 312 Constantine had a vision to conquer by the cross, and the Senate declared him Augustus. The next year Constantine and Licinius agreed on religious tolerance throughout the empire; but after Licinius banned church councils and meetings, the army of Constantine defeated him. The era of persecuting Christians ended in 324, and Byzantium was rebuilt as Constantinople.
The power of the Emperor had increased, and Constantine instituted reforms; but wealthy landowners relied on slave labor, and many professions became hereditary. Constantine promoted Christians and prohibited sacrifices, but he did not compel people to be Christian. He called the Council of Nicaea in 325 to settle the Arian controversy. Constantine urged unity and banned heretics from meeting. He detested Jews and prohibited them from owning Christian slaves. Lactantius in his Divine Institutes urged practice of the Christian virtues, whether one was rich or poor. True wealth is doing good, while the selfish are poor. Lactantius noted that Emperors who persecuted Christians soon were killed, and he exulted in the triumph of Constantine as history justifying Christianity.
Constantine was succeeded by his three sons while other relatives were killed. Constantius ruled the East, fought Shapur II's Persian empire, and outlived his brothers. When he died in 361, the capable general Julian was promoted from Caesar to Emperor even though he was not a Christian. Julian tolerated all Christian worship including heretics but reinstituted pagan sacrifices and removed subsidies for Christians. Julian launched a large invasion of Persia and Assyria but died from a wound without an heir in 363. His successors were Christians but tolerated pagan religion. The brothers Valentinian and Valens co-ruled the empire; the latter was an Arian and persecuted dissent in the East, executing many suspected conspirators. Valens also defeated the rebellion of Procopius and spent three years fighting the Goths. Valentinian fought Germans and others, raising taxes to pay his troops. He died in 375 and was succeeded in the West by his 16-year-old son Gratian. Goths invaded the empire, and Valens was killed fighting them in 378.
Theodosius became Augustus, accepted the Nicene creed, and issued fifteen edicts against heretics. He allowed Goths to settle within the empire. The general Maximus was acclaimed Augustus by his army in Britain, and they overthrew Gratian. Theodosius used Goths, Huns, and Alans to defeat Maximus, and he let young Valentinian II rule the West. Theodosius made a treaty with Shapur III, giving most of Armenia to the Persians. After racing fans murdered a general in Thessalonica, Theodosius had 7,000 massacred in the circus. Theodosius declared pagan sacrifices and divination treason in 391. Temples were demolished, and the great library of Alexandria was destroyed. The ancient Olympic games were ended, but gladiator shows continued. Valentinian II was murdered in 392, and Theodosius died three years later, succeeded by his young sons Arcadius and Honorius.
Antony's living as an anchorite in the Egyptian desert for so many decades led to the development of the monastic tradition. He found value in virtue rather than in material possessions. He urged self-knowledge and preparation for God. Hilarion was influenced by Antony to become a hermit and in 329 founded a monastery in Palestine. Pachomius founded a cenobite (community) monastery in Egypt that by his death in 348 had thousands of monks.
Arius wrote about the oneness of God and that the Christ was created by God. This doctrine was condemned by bishops at a council in 321, and four years later the council at Nicaea decided that the Christ was of the same essence as God and declared Arius a heretic. The books of Arius were ordered burned, and twenty canons attempted to solve current controversies with church authority. Athanasius became bishop at Alexandria and was the foremost opponent of the Arian heresy. He was condemned and deposed by an Arian church council in 335. For many years Arianism prevailed in the East under Constantius, and Athanasius was banned five times.
Basil of Cappadocia founded a monastery and developed rules for cenobite monks living in community. He also wrote extensively on virtue and the value of self-control. Basil's friend Gregory of Nazianzus became a bishop and helped the doctrines of Athanasius become accepted as orthodox at the second ecumenical council at Constantinople in 381. Basil appointed his brother Gregory bishop of Nyssa, and in his Great Catechism, Gregory synthesized Jewish monotheism and Hellenic polytheism into the Christian trinity.
Martin was a soldier like his father; but after being baptized he told Emperor Julian he could not accept a bonus nor fight. Martin established the first monastery in Gaul, and he was elected bishop of Tours. Ambrose as praetorian prefect was settling a disturbance in Milan when he was spontaneously elected bishop in 374. Ambrose excommunicated Maximus for beheading Priscillian heretics, and he defended church authority against incursions by Emperors. In On the Duties of Ministers Ambrose argued that Christian ethics are superior to pagan ideas although he adopted the classical virtues. The poet Prudentius pioneered allegorical story-telling in his Psychomachia (Soul Battle) in which virtues overcome vices with the help of Christ. He also honored the sacrifices of Christians in his hymns Crowns of Martyrdom.
John Chrysostom was born in Antioch. In 373 he challenged a decree by Emperor Valens compelling monks to serve the state. He became the patriarch at Constantinople and was a very popular preacher, leaving behind homilies and other writings. He deposed six bishops for simony and tolerated Origenists despite the efforts of Epiphanius, who opposed heretics. Jerome completed his translation of the Bible into Latin in 406, and he wrote many biographies of literary men. His friend Paula established a monastery and convent in Bethlehem.
Augustine wrote his Confessions in 396. In this innovative book he prayed to God and confessed his shortcomings and experiences that led him from the religion of Mani to the Catholic faith. He had mistresses, praying for chastity, but not yet. After his mother Monica died, Augustine went back to Africa and became bishop of Hippo in 397. In On Free Choice of the Will he said people are responsible for their evil actions, and so God is justified in punishing them. He argued that judicial executions and soldiers killing enemies are not murder, but he believed that an unjust law is not valid. Augustine wrote On Christian Doctrine and other works that greatly influenced Christian theology. He opposed lying to entrap Priscillianist heretics. Augustine supported the persecution of the Donatist schismatics although he opposed capital punishment so as not to make them martyrs. After Alaric pillaged Rome, Augustine wrote the long City of God, contrasting the heavenly city with the earthly city of man. He criticized pagan Rome and compared it to the militaristic Assyrian empire. Those who were raped did not sin, because they did no wrong. Even a king can be a slave of sin. The virtuous living in the city of God obey the laws of the earthly city.
While the Eastern Roman empire co-existed with the Persian empire, the Goths led by Alaric invaded Greece. The poet Claudian criticized the praetorian prefect Rufinus and then the eunuch Eutropius, who became consul in the East, where Arcadius reigned. The general Stilicho fought against invaders, made a treaty with Alaric, and gained power in the West as consul, marrying his daughter Maria to Emperor Honorius. The Christian poet Prudentius persuaded Emperor Honorius to prohibit gladiatorial games, and the Colosseum was closed in 405. Honorius alienated pagans and Arians by excluding them from office. Alaric's Goths sacked Rome before he died in 410. Amid barbarian invasions several emperors competed for power in western Europe as Rome abandoned Britain to Saxon invasion.
Macrobius wrote that humans reincarnate until they achieve eternal happiness by virtue. John Cassian founded a nunnery and the monastery of St. Victor at Marseilles. He wrote about the eight principal faults of gluttony, fornication, covetousness, anger, dejection, laziness, ambition, and pride. In Conferences completed by 428 Cassian described the spiritual lessons he learned from various monks. Cassian opposed the Nestorian and Pelagian heresies.
The Vandals crossed from Spain to North Africa, while Saxons took over more of Britain. Huns, Burgundians, Visigoths, and Alans struggled in Gaul. In 450 Marcian succeeded Theodosius II as Emperor in the West and stopped paying tribute to the Huns and ended the selling of offices. In 451 Attila led his Huns along with Gepids, Ostrogoths, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, and others into Gaul. The next year Attila invaded Italy, but he retreated and died in 454. Vandals plundered Rome the next year. Emperor Leo ruled the East from 457 but was named the Butcher; he died in 474. The Scirian Odovacar deposed the last Western Emperor and was proclaimed King of Italy in 476.
At the request of Augustine in 418 Orosius wrote his History Against the Pagans to prove that Christians were not responsible for the fall of the Roman empire. However, Salvian in his On the Present Judgment criticized wealthy Roman Christians for not following the ethics of Jesus. Salvian noted that the sexual morality of the Goths and Vandals was better than that of the Romans and Spaniards. In To the Church Salvian warned about avarice. Vincent of Lerins wrote that Christians should accept the doctrines that are most universal, ancient, and agreed to by most. Leo was Bishop of Rome from 440 until his death in 461. He banished Manichaeans and Pelagians from Italy. Leo increased church hierarchy and his own position to the level of Pope. He persuaded Attila and the Vandals not to burn Rome. He declared usury incompatible with charity. After having been enslaved in Ireland, Patrick returned there as bishop in 432 and converted many. The Palestinian Talmud was written down in the late 4th century, and the longer Babylonian Talmud was compiled by Rabbana Ashi (352-427). Jews were discriminated against in both the Roman and the Persian empires.
The Eastern empire continued with the Isaurian Zeno as Emperor from 476 until he died in 491 and was replaced by Anastasius, while the Ostrogoth Theodoric defeated and replaced Odovacar as King of Italy. Invasions by Germans and Huns had depopulated the Balkans in the 5th century. Anastasius was a Monophysite and faced religious opposition; he died at 88 in 518. Cassiodorus served Theodoric as secretary. Symmachus and Boethius also helped Theodoric govern, but he had them both executed shortly before he died in 526. In The Consolation of Philosophy Boethius is treated in prison by Philosophy, who comes to him and answers his questions. She affirms the highest good, the intrinsic reward of virtue and punishment of wrong-doing, because the providence of God regulates all while still allowing humans free choices.
The Frank king Clovis (r. 481-511) prayed to Jesus Christ for victory, defeated his enemies, and became a Christian. He established a capital at Paris, united the Franks, and proclaimed Salic laws. The four sons of Clovis divided the Frank kingdom and fought each other. The wars went on for two generations until only Chlotar survived; but he died in 561.
Caesarius studied with Pomerius at Arles and was archbishop 502-542. As papal vicar Caesarius organized synods and settled controversies. Benedict was educated in Rome but became a hermit before founding monasteries. Benedict died in 547 but left behind the Rule that would become the standard for many monasteries. The Rule includes twelve steps of humility. Monks spent five hours praying, five or six hours working, and four hours reading. Obedience to the abbot is emphasized. In addition to his many writings Cassiodorus contributed to preserving classical culture by collecting books and having monks copy them.
Justinian gained power in 520 and became Emperor seven years later. He worked to expand the territory of the Roman empire and his control over the church. Empress Theodora had much power with her own intelligence service; she supported Monophysites and established a convent for converted prostitutes. The Persian Khusrau (r. 531-579) made peace with Justinian in 532. That year Belisarius had to use the army to suppress a revolt in Constantinople, killing 30,000. Justinian sent Belisarius to conquer the Vandals in North Africa, and Arians there were persecuted. After the Goth regent Amalasuntha was killed, Justinian ordered the imperial army to invade Italy, and Belisarius entered Rome in 536. A siege by the Goths destroyed aqueducts the next year. In 539 Ostrogoth king Witigis asked the Persian Khusrau to attack the Roman empire, and they did so, burning Antioch. Justinian offered northern Italy to the Goths, who wanted Belisarius to be Western Emperor; he refused the office but invaded the north.
Goths led by Totila fought the imperial army and Belisarius in Italy for a decade until Totila was finally defeated and killed by a large army, which included many Lombards, led by Narses in 552. The next year an even larger army led by Alamanni chiefs plundered Italy with Franks. In 554 Justinian applied the Imperial Code to Italy, restoring the aristocracy and the church, and Narses administered Italy as Patrician for thirteen years. Justinian made a new truce with Persia's Khusrau in 557, and five years later they agreed upon a fifty-year treaty. The immorality of Justinian's imperialistic wars was exposed in The Secret History by Procopius, and they did cause tremendous suffering. Procopius blamed Justinian for extraordinary corruption, religious hypocrisy, and the deaths of twenty million people. Taxes during the wars were high while soldiers went unpaid. Yet in his Buildings Procopius praised Emperor Justinian for his building programs, for expanding and saving the empire, and for his new laws. Justinian also tried to unify the church and made the canons of the four ecumenical councils valid imperial laws. Citizens that were not orthodox Christians could lose their civil rights and their possessions. Samaritans revolted in 529, and many thousands were killed. That year Justinian closed the schools in Athens. Thirty years later pagan books were publicly burned in Constantinople.
Codex Justinianus was published in ten books in 529, followed by fifty books of Pandects in 533. The Institutions contained the authoritative commentaries of Gaius, Papinian, Ulpian, Paulus, and Modestinus. The new laws established imperial edicts and thus favored monarchy. Everyone was either a citizen or a slave, though lower classes were punished more severely. Slavery was hereditary, but the number that could be freed was no longer limited.
The expanded empire of Justinian soon broke into pieces. While Constantinople was divided between Blues and Greens, Persians encroached from the east, Avars and Slavs invaded the Balkans from the north, and most of Italy was lost to the Lombards. The Visigoths ruled Spain while Christianity was developed there by Martin of Braga and Leander of Seville.
For half a century the sons and grandsons of Chlotar fought each other as Franks were divided. The queens Brunhild and Fredegund often intervened in these violent struggles. The Celtic monk Columban established numerous monasteries and nunneries that used strict discipline but tolerated pagan literature. Saxons, Angles, and Jutes invaded and settled in Britain. Saxon king Aethelbert married the daughter of Charibert, adopted her religion, and allowed Augustine to bring forty monks to Canterbury in 597. Aethelbert was the first Saxon to establish written laws in Britain, and he governed Kent until 616. Gregory became prefect of Rome in 572 but later converted his palace into a monastery and helped the poor. Gregory represented Pope Pelagius II at Constantinople, gaining aid against the Lombards, and in 590 he was the first monk to become Pope. Gregory confirmed Benedict's Rule and promoted convents. He protested imperial war taxes and tried to make peace with the Lombards. He consolidated the lands of the Papal States, and Emperor Phocas declared his successor head of the church. In his Pastoral Rules Pope Gregory recommended ministers practice a saintly ethics.
Muhammad was born at Mecca in 570 and was an orphan at six. At 25 he married the wealthy Khadija, and in 610 he began having revelations that became the Qur'an. He criticized the worship of idols and was persecuted in Mecca, but he gradually gained more followers called Muslims. Abu Bakr converted many and freed some slaves. The Hashim clan protected Muhammad and was boycotted for two years. After his wife Khadija and his uncle Abu Talib died, protection was weakened. Muhammad claimed that the angel Gabriel took him at night to meet Moses in Jerusalem. Muhammad converted men of Yathrib, and a revelation gave Muslims permission to fight wrong-doers. When attempts were made to murder or capture Muhammad in 622, he migrated to Medina, where he bought a house. Jews were accepted as equals, but they were expected to contribute to the war against wrong-doers. The former slave Bilal was the first to call Muslims to prayer. Muhammad said they should not worship him but only God. He approved the stoning of a couple guilty of adultery. Muhammad married 'A'isha when she was nine. Prayers were now made facing Mecca instead of Jerusalem.
Raids were made against Quraysh caravans, and the prophet was given one-fifth of the booty for his family's needs and to distribute to the poor. Muhammad promised that his warriors who died fighting would enter Paradise. He declared that a Muslim could not be the wife of a pagan. Twice Muhammad converted men intending to assassinate him. He was considered the first prophet allowed to take prisoners and spoils. After a Muslim woman was insulted by a Jew, killing resulted; then Muhammad ordered Muslims to kill Jews. Muhammad's daughter Fatimah married his adopted son 'Ali, and Muhammad began marrying widows. Muhammad said his followers could use deception during war. In a large battle against the Quraysh, Muhammad was wounded. After the defeat a revelation prevented Muhammad from mutilating thirty prisoners. The prophet had limited Muslims to four wives but made an exception for himself. After the Muslim army cut down their palm trees, the Bani Nadir Jews joined the Quraysh against Muhammad. An army three times the size of the Muslims' besieged them at Medina. Muhammad used intrigue to get the Qurayza to leave but then marched against them. After a siege Qurayza men were executed as the women and children were enslaved. Muhammad selected the beautiful Rayhanah as his slave.
Muhammad wanted to make an unarmed pilgrimage to Mecca in 628 and agreed on a truce that helped the Muslim community double in two years. The prophet's message that Persian shah Khusrau had died converted Yemen's Persian viceroy Badhan when he learned it was true. During the truce Muhammad's army attacked the Khaybar Jews; those surrendering had to give up half their crops. After Muslim envoys were killed, Muhammad sent an army to attack Syria. Most Meccans converted when a Muslim army of 10,000 conquered the sacred city, destroying pagan idols. Soon an army of 30,000 was expanding the emerging Islamic state and collecting taxes. Muhammad prohibited usury and monopolies. He permitted slavery but ordered they should receive food and clothing equal to the owner's. He opposed artistic representations of humans and animals. Muhammad's last pilgrimage to Mecca was the first from which pagans were excluded. The prophet died in 632 and was succeeded by his closest friend Abu Bakr.
Muslims believe that Muhammad received the Qur'an from God, though often the angel Gabriel speaks. Muhammad is the messenger warning all to worship the one God and nothing else. Charity and good deeds are encouraged, and those doing evil or disbelieving are often threatened with punishment in the fire of hell. The prophet advised respect for Jews and Christians and referred to stories from the Old and New Testaments, summarizing many of their teachings. Believers are reminded to pray five times a day, give charity, fast during the month of Ramadan, and not eat animals that died naturally nor pork. Believers are urged to fight wrong-doers and unbelievers.
Abu Bakr appointed Khalid to lead the army, and he defeated another prophet named Musaylima, who had raised a large army too. Muslim armies invaded Syria, and those who did not accept Islam or agree to pay higher taxes were killed. Khalid invaded Iraq and threatened the Persians with the same three choices. The Byzantine army was defeated in Palestine, and after a siege Damascus surrendered. In 634 Abu Bakr was succeeded by the ascetic 'Umar. He had mosques and prisons built, expelling Jews from Arabia to Syria. Non-Muslims in conquered lands were not allowed to carry arms, and Muslims were forbidden to cultivate the land there. Muslims defeated the Persian army in 637. That year 'Umar himself traveled to claim Jerusalem. Antioch paid 300,000 gold coins in 638, and the Persian empire was defeated in 641. Egypt was invaded, and Alexandria surrendered after a long siege in 642. Egyptian grain alleviated famine in Arabia. In 644 'Umar was assassinated by a Persian slave while praying. 'Uthman was elected Caliph, because 'Ali would not agree to follow the precedents of the Caliphs. 'Uthman appointed many of his Umayyad relatives, and their misrule was resented. Muslims invaded North Africa, and their newly organized navy conquered Cyprus.
After 'Uthman lost the prophet's ring in 650, resentment grew because of decreasing spoils from conquest. Though 'Ali tried to protect him, 'Uthman was murdered in 656; 'Ali became Caliph. A civil war was fought in Basra. 'A'isha retired to Medina, and 'Ali moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. The Ummayad Mu'awiya ruled Syria and Palestine. A compromise was opposed by the Kharijis, who tried to assassinate both leaders in 661. 'Ali was killed; but Mu'awiya was only wounded and persuaded 'Ali's successor to retire on a pension. 'Ali's son Husain and his supporters were massacred in 680, and Mu'awiya was succeeded by his son Yazid. In 683 Medina was destroyed and Mecca was attacked in another civil war. Mukhtar took up the 'Ali cause called Shi'ah and gave non-Arab Muslims equality, but he was defeated in 687.
Eventually Caliph 'Abd al-Malik unified the Islamic empire, making Arabic the official language. While the imperial army of al-Hajjaj subdued the east as far as India, 'Abd al-Malik's son al-Walid (r. 705-715) organized public charity in Syria and promoted building. The Muslim conquest of Spain took only two years and was completed in 713. The saintly Caliph 'Umar II (r. 717-720) reduced taxes, stopped wars of conquest, and tolerated Jews and Christians, though his reforms did not last. The Muslim invasion of Gaul was defeated by the Frank army of Charles Martel in 732. Caliph Hisham (r. 724-743) was unpopular for raising taxes. The 'Abbasids rose to power in Khurasan and moved west, replacing the Umayyads with their dynasty in 750.
At a banquet in 750 the 'Abbasids slaughtered eighty Umayyad leaders, but Rahman ibn Mu'awiya escaped to Spain and became an independent governor there in 756. Al-Mansur (r. 754-775) used force and spies to consolidate his empire and built a new capital at Baghdad. Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809) ruled at the height of 'Abbasid wealth and power in Baghdad. He sponsored academies and translations from Greek and Sanskrit. As the basis of Islamic law al-Shafi'i added consensus and analogy to the Qur'an and the traditions of the prophet. After Harun's death the empire was divided between his two sons until al-Ma'mun (r. 813-833) gained control. He promoted education and a less fundamentalist theology. Numerous conflicts between Sunnis and Shi'ites as well as struggles for power over the next century eventually resulted in the Turk Buyids taking control of the Baghdad government in 945. Muslims dominated Spain, and Cordoba became the greatest intellectual center in Europe with a university and 400,000 books. North Africa was governed by the independent Idrisid dynasty in Morocco from 788 to 974. Shi'a Fatimids took over Egypt in 968 and then Syria for about a century. The Persian Samanids were ruling most of the east by the end of the 9th century.
Better paid Turkish cavalry defeated the Buyids' Daulamite infantry, though 'Adud al-Daula promoted civilization from Baghdad until he died in 983. The Ghaznavid empire was founded in 977, and Mahmud (r. 998-1030) ended Samanid rule in Iran and invaded India, while Caliph al-Qadir (991-1031) codified Sunni doctrine in Baghdad. In 1040 the Seljuq Turks defeated the Ghaznavids, whose kingdom shrunk to Afghanistan. Al-Qadir's son al-Qa'im survived the Shi'a Buyids but gave way to the Sunni Seljuqs, crowning Tughril-Beg in Baghdad in 1056. The Seljuqs decisively defeated the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071. Alp-Arslan had an army of 200,000 Turks, but he was assassinated by a prisoner and was succeeded by his son Malik-Shah (r. 1072-1092). Both these Seljuqs were aided by the capable vizier Nizam al-Mulk, who wrote Rules for Kings. Nizam and Malik-Shah were both murdered by the sect of Assassins in 1092. Nizam's book suggested that the best government was by one wise king, who would put in offices those with education and merit. Justice is most important and should be carefully monitored. He criticized the pre-Muslim Sasanians and also Shi'a heretics.
Ferdowsi's Shah-nameh is an epic poem meaning The Book of Kings based on chronicles; it focuses on the heroic deeds of Rostam and the struggles of Persian kingship after the Greek wars until the fall of the Sasanians to the Muslims. The horror of the violence is captured as fathers cause the death of their own sons. Only the wiser kings that practice justice bring peace.
Sufism arose in the 8th century; the woman Rabi'a remained celibate and sought God neither out of fear of punishment nor for hope of reward. Muhasibi emphasized self-discipline and moral psychology; he taught Junayd (d. 910), who developed Sufism as a theology. Al-Hallaj (858-922) drew attention by announcing that he is the truth; he sought martyrdom and was eventually executed. The Samanids in Khurasan and Transoxiana were more tolerant of the Sufi mystics. Abu Nasr as-Sarraj (d. 988) of Tus in Khurasan described seven stations of the Sufi way as repentance, watchfulness, renunciation, poverty, patience, trust, and acceptance. 'Abdullah Ansari (1006-1088) taught Sufis in Herat, analyzing a hundred spiritual stations.
Al-Razi (865-925)
was a physician, emphasized science, and adapted Platonic philosophy.
Al-Farabi (870-950)
was a Sufi and applied Plato's political philosophy to Islamic
culture. Saadia ben Joseph (882-942) founded scientific Judaism
and systematized the Talmud. The Sora school of Talmud
was closed in the middle of the 10th century, but the school at
Pumbeditha lasted until 1040. Miskawayh
(c. 936-1030) applied the ethics of Aristotle, criticized anti-social
asceticism, and wrote a history of the world. Avicenna
(980-1037) served the Samanids and fled from the Ghaznavids; he
wrote the most influential medical Canon. Avicenna
was strongly influenced by Aristotle but wrote his own Islamic
philosophy. Ibn Hazm
(994-1064) was vizier at Valencia and Cordoba. He wrote about
romantic love in The Ring of the Dove and defended the
rights of women and slaves. He compiled an encyclopedic study
of comparative religion, and his ethical ideas were well expressed
in A Philosophy of Character and Conduct. Also in Spain
the Jews ibn Gabirol
and Bahya wrote valuable books on ethics. Islamic urban culture
is depicted in the Arabian tales of the 1001
Nights, and the astronomer and mathematician 'Umar Khayyam
left behind Epicurean quatrains in his Ruba'iyat.
The Byzantine empire was diminished as the Slavs and Avars migrated from the north and the Persians took over most of the Near East, including Egypt by 619. Emperor Heraclius organized the military to fight back, regaining Asia Minor and Armenia and getting Syria, Palestine, and Egypt by a treaty with Persia in 629. However, the Byzantines soon lost most of this to Muslim conquests by the time Heraclius died in 641. The theologian Maximus had his tongue cut out and hand cut off for disagreeing with the Emperor on the will of Christ. Maximus left behind writings on how to practice Christian love. In their struggles for power Byzantine emperors mutilated their own families; but Greek fire helped defend Constantinople from the Muslims. Emperor Leo III (r. 717-741) gained control and fought off annual Musliim attacks. He oversaw a reform of Byzantine law and issued an edict against images in 726. John of Damascus defended icons and was the first to apply Aristotle's philosophy to Christian theology. Leo's son Constantine V (r. 741-775) had to defeat a revolt of those opposing iconoclasm. Byzantine wars made the Bulgarians enemies, and Constantine V oppressed monks. Bulgarians led by Krum fought the Byzantine empire. Battles over icons went on until 843.
Religious persecution against Manichaean dualists resulted in imperial soldiers killing 100,000 Paulicians. After the secular Photius was confirmed as Constantinople Patriarch in 861, a split developed between Roman Catholic church under the Pope and the Eastern Orthodox. One practical difference was the Byzantines allowed their clergy to marry. Emperor Basil I (r. 867-886) banished Photius and tried to reconcile with Rome as the independent Bulgarian church recognized the supremacy of the Constantinople patriarch. Photius was recalled in 877 but was deposed by Emperor Leo VI (r. 886-912). Leo oversaw the complete revision of Byzantine laws that included canon law. The Emperor took over previous powers of the Senate and could only be checked by the Patriarch and church council. Guilds developed, and aristocrats held feudal power over serfs. Bulgaria under Symeon (r. 893-927) defeated the Byzantines in 896 and invaded Greece. After many battles Symeon's son Peter (r. 927-969) made a peace treaty with the Byzantines.
After being co-emperor for thirty years and writing books, Constantine VII (r. 945-959) used diplomacy and restored land to the peasants. Nicephorus Phocas (r. 963-969) used the military to take power, but the Constantinople patriarch Polyeuctes refused to justify soldiers for killing in wars. John Tzimisces (r. 969-976) conquered Bulgaria and annexed it to the Byzantine empire. Basil II (r. 976-1025) was not able to consolidate his power until 989. He invaded Macedonia and defended Syria while restoring land to the poor. In conquering the Balkans Basil had 14,000 captives blinded. Basil expanded the Byzantine empire to its greatest extent and by this plundering managed to lower taxes and leave a substantial treasury.
Several were blinded as men struggled to be Byzantine
Emperor. Wars, famine, and plague depleted the treasury, while
aristocrats gained power and wealth as feudalism developed. Constantinople
patriarch Michael Cerularius reasserted the authority of the Eastern
Orthodox church but caused a permanent schism from the Roman Catholic
church in 1054. Constantine X (r. 1059-1067) tried to bring justice;
but he continued to farm out taxes and sold the highest offices
while a weakened military allowed the empire to deteriorate. Michael
Psellus tried to develop the university, wrote about the times,
chose emperors, and was even prime minister. After the Byzantines
suffered a devastating defeat by the Muslims in 1071, they began
appealing to the Christian west for help. General Alexius Comnenus
(r. 1081-1118) won a power struggle and became Emperor. He made
a commercial and military alliance with Venice that secured the
Adriatic. In literature the epic Barlaam
and Ioasaph utilized part of the Buddha's life in a story
that promotes Christian doctrines. The popular Digenis
Akritas depicts a heroic warrior fighting for the Christians
against the Muslims on the border between their empires.
Isidore of Seville presided over church councils in 619 and 633, and he fostered education with his Etymologies, which was widely read in the middle ages. Visigothic kings ruled Spain until Muslims invaded in 711 and quickly took over most of the peninsula. Franks struggled with divided kingdoms, but a coalition behind Charles Martel in 732 defeated the Muslim invasion. His sons Carloman and Pippin convened church councils that promoted ethical reforms. In Italy Lombard kings from Adaloald (r. 615-624) on were Christian, and Liutprand (r. 712-744) consolidated the Lombard kingdom. In 754 Pippin was anointed by the Pope and attacked the Lombards, and Charlemagne overcame them in 774. Charlemagne also spent 32 years fighting and converting the pagan Saxons. While the Byzantines were ruled by the woman Irene, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800. Franks conquered Barcelona the next year. In 810 Charlemagne made peace treaties with Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I, Cordoba emir al-Hakim, and Dane king Hemming. Charlemagne gave much charity to help the poor and promoted education through his advisor Alcuin, who objected to bishops being used in war and priests in secular work.
Charlemagne's son Louis (r. 814-840) the Pious let his sons rule parts of the Frank empire. In 839 the empire was divided, giving Charles the west, Lothar the east, and Bavaria to Louis the German. Lothar tried to claim the empire; but his forces were defeated by Charles and Louis, though the treaty of Verdun in 843 gave Lothar Italy and a narrow strip to Frisia that would become Switzerland, Belgium, and Netherlands, separating France from Germany. Viking raids began in 844. Lothar's middle kingdom was divided for his three sons when he died in 855. Pope Nicholas (858-867) claimed hierarchical authority based on the forged "donation of Constantine." Charles the Bald expanded the Frank kingdom and was crowned Emperor in 875; but it was Louis the German's son Charles the Fat who was crowned Emperor in 881. He abdicated six years later as the empire broke into regions governed by feudal nobles and bishops.
Anglo-Saxons struggled for power in Britain. Warrior king Penda ruled Mercia (633-655), defeating and killing both Edwin (r. 616-633) and Oswald (r. 634-642) of Northumbria. Wessex king Cynegils (r. 611-642) became a Christian in 635. Bishops met at Hertford in 672 and accepted Roman canon laws. Picts attacked Northumbria from the north. Mercia king Aethelbald (r. 716-757) subjected all the provinces south of the Humber by 730 and called himself King of Britannia; but he was murdered, and his successor Offa (r. 757-796) fought his neighbors. Viking raids began in 789. Offa made a commercial treaty with Charlemagne in 796. Wessex king Ecgberht (r. 802-839) conquered Cornwall in 809 and Mercia in 829. Danes began raiding in 835, and a large Danish army invaded East Anglia in 865. Young Alfred became king in 871 and defeated the Danes seven years later. The English continued to fight the Danes for several years as Danelaw governed in the east. Welsh bishop Asser wrote a biography of Alfred in 893. Alfred promoted literacy and translation of books into English. Alfred unified much of England by revising the laws of Ine of Wessex, Offa of Mercia, and Aethelberht of Kent.
The Old English epic Beowulf
depicted warriors in Scandinavia, warning that punishment will
follow wrong-doing after death if not in life. Irish myths and
sagas of this era are also violent and depict cattle raids. Only
Druids can calm down Cu Chulaind. Ireland had been Christian since
Patrick's mission in the 5th century, but local kings struggled
for power; even monasteries fought each other between 760 and
824. Viking raids began in 795, and the Norse ruled Dublin from
851 until 902. John Scotus
Erigena came from Ireland to the court of Charles the Bald
about 845. He translated Christian works from Greek into Latin
and synthesized Greek philosophy with Christian theology in his
On the Division of Nature. His mystical panentheist theology
was cited by Cathar heretics, and the book was burned in 1210.
John Scotus showed how vices can be transformed into virtues by
divine grace.
Adventurous Vikings raided from ships, and before 900 Norway's king Harald Fairhair claimed Shetland and the Orkney islands. Rolf (Rollo) settled in Normandy, was recognized as duke by Frank king Charles the Simple in 911, and was baptized. Swedes invaded Denmark about 900 and ruled it until 936. Haakon was brought up by England's king Athelstan as a Christian and forced Erik Bloodaxe out of Norway. Haakon was called the Good and formulated laws. Haakon urged his subjects to practice Christianity; but he was resisted and was killed during a Danish invasion about 961. Dane king Harald Bluetooth became a Christian but was overthrown by his son Svein Forkbeard. Svein attacked Norway and the Swedes occupying Denmark. Norway's Olaf Tryggvason joined Svein Forkbeard in an attack on London in 994. Olaf accepted silver and became a Christian. Olaf was elected king of Norway and spread Christianity by force, but he died in a sea battle against Denmark and Sweden in 1000.
Iceland had law for four regions by 965 and became Christian in the year 1000. Greenland had been named by Erik the Red, and about 1000 Erik's son Leif explored Vinland (North America). Svein Forkbeard continued to attack England and collected large amounts of silver. Danish king Knut ruled England from 1019 to 1035 and attacked Norway in 1028. Norway's king Magnus was called the Good for establishing the most progressive laws in Europe. Magnus also ruled Denmark before he died in 1047. Viking violence declined in the late 11th century as the royal armies enforced law, and fewer captives reduced slavery. The story of Denmark's king Knut IV (r. 1074-1086) is told in the Knytlinga Saga. About 1075 Adam of Bremen described the customs of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The three social classes were the aristocrats, free peasant farmers and warriors, and the thralls or serfs. Killing a thrall was not a major crime. Wise counsel was given in the "Sayings of the High One" (Havamal).
Edward (r 899-924) fought the Danes and expanded his English kingdom to the Humber River. Athelstan (r. 924-939) invaded Scotland. Edmund (r. 939-946) revised the laws so that a murderer's kinsmen would not be killed. King Edgar (r. 957-975) kept the peace and built more than forty monasteries. In 990 England began paying large amounts of silver to placate Viking raiders, but the fighting continued. In 1016 the Dane Knut became king of all England. After Knut died in 1035, there was a struggle because his son Hordaknut was in Denmark. In 1042 Danish rule in England ended as Edward was elected king.
The Frank empire had disintegrated into feudal government by local nobles, whose power and land was hereditary. The church also held much land, but many bishops were part of the feudal system. In 910 the monastery at Cluny was founded, and it promoted many reforms such as celibacy for clergy while rejecting simony and secular control. Frank king Lothair (r. 954-986) survived an invasion by German emperor Otto II in 978. Hugh Capet became king in 987, and the Peace of God was declared by a church council two years later. Hugh's son Robert II (r. 996-1031) ruled France and invaded Burgundy, finally conquering it in 1015. Robert made peace with Germany's Heinrich II, and in 1027 the Truce of God was proclaimed, restricting the days on which military attacks were allowed. Robert's son Henri I (r. 1031-1060) refused to obey the Truce of God, and his brother, Burgundy duke Robert I (r. 1032-1076), even pillaged his own vassals and the Church. Philip I became king of France at the age of eight in 1060, and he was excommunicated in 1094 for bigamy. In the 11th century Christians in northern Spain won many victories against the Muslims; but they also fought each other, as in the war of the three Sanchos in 1067. Leon's Alfonso VI (r. 1065-1109) took over Castile in 1072. He gave Jews civil equality with Christians. After Christians took over Toledo in 1085, Almoravids from North Africa occupied eastern Spain.
Germans also developed feudal relationships to protect themselves from incursions by the Magyars. The Saxon Heinrich (r. 919-936) ruled Germany, defeated the Magyars, and was succeeded by his son Otto. As king Otto was served by vassals in Lotharingia, Franconia, Swabia, and Bavaria. Otto nominated bishops and had to put down revolts in Bavaria, Franconia, and Lotharingia. Magyars were defeated again and gradually became Hungarian Christians. Otto's army fought several civil wars, conquered Bohemia, and defeated Obodrites and Wends. Otto was crowned Emperor at Rome in 962 and spent the next decade in Italy. His son Otto II (r. 973-983) was Emperor of Germany and Italy, and his reign was preoccupied with wars. Otto III was only three years old, but his mother and grandmother as regents prevented civil war. By the time Duke Mieszko died in 992 Poland had expanded and gained religious independence from Germany by submitting to the Pope. Geza (r. 970-997) was succeeded as king of Hungary by his son Stephen (r. 997-1038), who promoted Christianity. Duke Heinrich of Bavaria refrained from rebelling against Otto III, who died in 1002. Literature began to emerge; but the strife in poems reflected the feudal rivalries and violence. The nun Hrotsvitha wrote moral Christian plays based on Roman models, but they were not performed.
In 882 Oleg united Russian tribes in Kiev, and his son Igor (r. 913-945) attacked Constantinople in 941; Igor's ruling widow Olga became a Christian in 957. Svjatoslav (r. 962-972) allied with the Byzantines for an attack on the Bulgarian kingdom in 968. Vladimir won a succession struggle about 980 and ruled until 1015. Vladimir married a Byzantine princess and became a Christian in 988 as thousands were baptized. Yaroslav (r. 1019-1054) won a civil war and gained some peace for Russia after defeating the Pechenegs in 1037. His many sons struggled with divided rule until his grandson Vladimir Monomakh got the princes to agree on unity in 1097.
In the 10th century most of the Popes were pawns in the Italian politics of kings of Italy, German emperors, and others who were able to grab power temporarily. Berengar as king of Italy (r. 898-924) had King Louis of Provence blinded. Intriguing Marozia had her power taken by her son Alberic II, who governed Rome from 932 to 954. The three German Ottos used imperial troops to control much of Italy. Heinrich II was made king of the Lombards in 1004 and was crowned Emperor ten years later. Traveling Normans came to help fight Saracens in Apulia and Sicily. German king Conrad decreed feudal law at Pavia in 1037, defining the rights and obligations of vassals. Venice developed its commerce and built a powerful navy, serving as bridge and arbiter between the Byzantine and Western empires. Three families ruled Venice until Domenico Flabanico (r. 1032-1043) gave power to the assembly.
German king Heinrich II (r. 1002-1024) invaded Bohemia and Burgundy, and he extended more secular power to bishops. The army of Conrad II (r. 1024-1039) ravaged Italy. Heinrich III (r. 1039-1056) invaded Bohemia and Hungary, and he helped Casimir (r. 1039-1058) restore Poland. Agnes ruled Germany as regent for her six-year-old son Heinrich IV. As archbishops were taking control, Heinrich IV was declared of age in 1065. He found himself at war with the Saxons and was excommunicated in 1076 by Pope Gregory VII over his privilege of investiture. Faced with losing his kingdom, Heinrich repented; but Swabia was devastated by civil war. Heinrich IV invaded Italy in 1081 and was crowned Emperor by alternative Pope Clement III. By 1088 peace had been achieved, and German bishops accepted Pope Urban II while disregarding Heinrich's excommunication. In 1095 Heinrich IV protected the rights of Jews with a decree.
In Italy the ascetic monk Peter Damian systematized self-flagellation and led the movement for the Cluny reforms to eliminate concubinage, simony, and the use of arms by clerics. In 1059 a Lateran council of 113 bishops established the electoral power of the cardinal bishops, but none from Germany had attended. When Pope Alexander II was elected in 1061, Heinrich IV as Patrician invested Pope Honorius II. Normans drove the Byzantines out of Italy in 1071 by defeating their fleet. Alexander's advisor Hildebrand became Pope Gregory VII in 1073. He enforced clerical celibacy by deposing priests, though a Paris synod rejected his decrees. Gregory VII asserted his papal authority over bishops and even emperors, declaring that no one could retract his sentences nor judge him and that the Church had never erred. In 1076 Heinrich IV got a council at Worms to depose Gregory for treason and witchcraft. The Pope then excommunicated and deposed Heinrich, and Germans induced him to humble himself in penitence. Eventually a civil war broke out between rival Popes and rival German kings. Gregory was reconciled with the Norman Guiscard, whose forces drove Heinrich IV out of Rome in 1084; but both Gregory and Guiscard died the next year. Pope Urban II allied himself with the Welfs of Bavaria, and a long struggle began between the papal Guelfs and the imperialist Ghibellines.
England's king Edward (r. 1042-1066) the Confessor had been raised by Norman clergy in monasteries and encouraged Norman influence. Harold helped defeat Welsh incursions and became king of England in 1066. That year Norway's king Harald with 300 ships invaded Yorkshire, but Harold's English army defeated them at Stamford Bridge. Three days later William's Normans invaded England in about 500 ships. King Harold led his army of about 7,000; but at Hastings they were defeated, and he was killed. William was anointed King of England by the Archbishop of York. William imposed heavy taxes and crushed any resistance as women fled into monasteries to avoid being raped. Danes and Norwegians invaded to support English resistance; but in 1070 they made a treaty with William and left. Scots raided, but two years later King Malcolm III became William's vassal. Most English institutions continued as the Norman warriors dominated the landed aristocracy. A decree prohibited peasants from hunting in the royal forest. The famous Domesday Survey assessed estates, and landowners had to swear fealty to the king. In 1087 William died in France and passed the throne of England to his son William Rufus. He suppressed a rebellion and increased taxes. He resolved a conflict with his brother, Duke Robert of Normandy, and they defeated and divided the Normandy lands of their younger brother Henri in 1091. William II also fought battles against the Scots and Welsh, and he put down a Northumbrian tax revolt.
In 1095 Pope Urban II answered a call for help from the Byzantines by proclaiming a crusade to take Jerusalem back from the Muslims and offering absolution of sins. As the crusaders passed through Hungary led by Walter Sans-Avoir and Peter the Hermit, increasing difficulties caused violence and many deaths. In Germany crusaders robbed and killed Jews. Crusaders stopped at Constantinople, and then about 17,000 were killed in an ambush by Turks near Nicaea; Emperor Alexius sent warships to rescue besieged survivors. Hugh of Vermandois, Raymond of Toulouse, and most crusader leaders swore allegiance to Alexius. Modern scholars estimate the total number of crusaders at about 7,000 knights and 60,000 infantry. Baldwin invaded Armenia and became count of Edessa. Most crusaders besieged Antioch and suffered starvation; when the city was taken in 1098, all its Turks were massacred. As the crusaders left the Norman Bohemond behind to rule Antioch, the Egyptian Fatimids invaded Palestine and took over Jerusalem; they offered Christian pilgrims access to holy places, but the crusaders rejected this. In 1099 1300 knights and 12,000 crusading soldiers attacked Jerusalem, and nearly 40,000 people were massacred, including women and children. Godfrey of Lorraine was elected and called himself Defender of the Holy Sepulcher; he distributed estates to knights, and Italian ships began trading.
Godfrey died in 1100, and Baldwin became king of Jerusalem. Bohemond's army was annihilated, and he was captured. More crusaders came, and under Raymond of Toulouse they tried to free Bohemond; but most of their large army of perhaps 100,000 were killed by the Danishmends and Kilij Arslan's Seljuks. Two other crusading armies were also slaughtered by a large Turkish army. Edessa count Baldwin II and Patriarch Bernard paid 100,000 bezants to get Bohemond released. He and King Baldwin fought each other, and crusaders fought Byzantines. Bohemond went to Apulia and France to raise 34,000 crusaders against the Byzantines but was defeated by their navy at Dyrrhachium in 1107. Persian sultan Berkyaruk launched a counter crusade in 1110, and the Muslim army recaptured Edessa but could not take Antioch. John Comnenus (r. 1118-1143) succeeded his father Alexius as Emperor in Constantinople and went on fighting the Turks in Asia Minor. As crusaders and Muslims continued to fight, a new order of Templars was authorized by Pope Honorius II in 1128 to add to the previously ordained military order known as the Hospitallers of St. John.
After a struggle for power among the Muslims, Zengi emerged to conquer Christian cities, killing and enslaving Franks when Edessa was taken in 1144. Zengi was murdered two years later, but his son Nur-ad-Din ruled Aleppo and won many victories. John's son Manuel (r. 1143-1180) used the Byzantine army to keep Raymond of Antioch out of Cilicia. After Joscelin regained Edessa, Nur-ad-Din's forces again slaughtered and enslaved Franks in retaking it. This stimulated the second crusade that was proclaimed by Pope Eugenius in 1145. France's Louis VII took up the cause and sent Bernard of Clairvaux out preaching. Again Jews were massacred in Germany, though Bernard went there to try to redirect the energy to converting Slavs. Emperor Conrad led a large army through Hungary, but most of them were slaughtered by Seljuk Turks. Roger's Normans plundered Greek cities. Louis foolishly attacked Damascus, which had been the Franks' ally, but Conrad persuaded him to withdraw. As he returned to Europe, Louis in Sicilian ships was attacked by Byzantines and blamed Manuel; but Conrad would not support a crusade against his friend Manuel. Nur-ad-Din's forces defeated and killed Raymond of Antioch in 1149. Nur-ad-Din was known for dispensing justice at Aleppo and Damascus, and he founded colleges, convents, and a hospital. When Emperor Manuel and Jerusalem king Baldwin III made an alliance, Nur-ad-Din returned 6,000 captives.
Jerusalem king Amalric (r. 1163-1174) invaded Egypt twice; but in 1169 Nur-ad-Din's friend Saladin gained control of Egypt and made trade agreements with Pisans, Genoese, and Venetians. King Amalric made a treaty with the Byzantine emperor in 1170; but the next year Manuel ordered Venetians arrested. In 1176 Manuel fled from Turks and suffered a disastrous loss of territory in Asia Minor as the Byzantine empire deteriorated under rule by a military class. In 1182 the army revolted against the Latin empress Maria and slaughtered Italian merchants.
Raid of a Muslim caravan by Reginald stimulated Egyptian sultan Saladin to capture 1500 pilgrims. Saladin took Aleppo in 1183 and resided at Damascus, but he used diplomacy to make agreements with Bohemond III of Antioch, the Seljuk sultan, and the Byzantines. Reginald raided another caravan, and in 1187 Saladin defeated the Frank army and then captured many cities in Palestine including Jerusalem. This news caused European Christians to stop their wars and launch the third crusade led by Germany's Friedrich, England's Richard, and France's Philip. Friedrich died near Seleucia. Richard stopped in Sicily to protect his sister Joan's dowry and then took Cyprus by force from Isaac Comnenus. In 1191 Richard and Philip relieved the 100,000 crusaders trapped by Saladin's army while besieging Acre. A dispute caused Philip to go home. Richard sold Cyprus and the next year made a truce with Saladin, agreeing to let Christians and Muslims have access to holy places. While returning Richard was captured in Austria and was not ransomed until 1194. Saladin had died in 1193, and his sons struggled for power.
Pope Innocent III urged a fourth crusade that was aimed at Cairo. Venetians offered transportation for money; when the payment was short, they got the crusaders to help them retake Zara from the Hungarians in 1202. Exiled Alexius sent word he would pay Venice for putting him on the Byzantine throne. The crusaders conquered Constantinople in 1203. The Latins were resented, and the next year the Franks and Venetians plundered the city and elected Count Baldwin IX of Flanders and Hainault Latin emperor. The Byzantine empire was divided up. Eventually crusaders invaded Egypt in 1218. Friedrich II finally went on crusade in 1229 and made a peace treaty, giving Muslims access to Jerusalem; but civil war broke out in Palestine and Cyprus. Egyptian ruler Aiyub hired a Khorezmian army of 10,000 and sacked Jerusalem in 1244. The Khorezmians turned against Aiyub and besieged him at Damascus; but they were defeated by the Egyptians. France's Louis IX supported and led a crusade that captured Damietta in Egypt in 1249. After famine and disease, the crusading army was captured, and Louis was ransomed for the enormous amount of 800,000 bezants.
In 1256 Mongols invaded
Turkestan and Persia, and two years later they sacked Baghdad,
massacring nearly a million people. Damascus fell in 1260. Most
of the Mongol army departed,
and the remainder was defeated by the Egyptians. Mamluk sultan
Baybars raided Palestine and made truces with Jaffa, Beirut, Tyre,
Hospitallers, Templars, and Tripoli; but his army destroyed Antioch
in 1268. Another crusade led by Louis IX was diverted by his brother
Charles of Anjou to Tunis, where Louis died of disease in 1270.
Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Paleologus (r. 1258-1282) had regained
Constantinople in 1261, ending the eastern Latin empire; but his
effort to reunify the church under the Pope in 1274 failed. With
such a long history of so many disasters, public opinion eventually
turned against the crusades despite the religious appeals. Mamluk
sultan Kalavun (r. 1279-1290) stopped two invading Mongol
armies with his own large Egyptian
army in 1281, and two years later Franks made a truce with him.
The Mamluk army wiped out the remaining crusader cities of Tyre,
Sidon, Beirut, and Haifa, and the Templars and Hospitallers fled
to Cyprus in 1291. Christians became a persecuted minority everywhere
in the Middle East except in Cilician Armenia. Two centuries of
religious wars had made the Muslims much less tolerant of the
hostile Christians. Such militaristic imperialism hypocritically
justified by religion was never successfully revived; the crusades
were over.
Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) taught jurisprudence and philosophy at the Nizamiya academy. He practiced Sufi exercises, and his books on philosophy and religion made Sufi mysticism acceptable to more people. He taught that a moral life is the basis for mystical intuition. He valued the use of reason with Shari'a (Islamic law) and adapted Aristotle's ethics of the mean between extreme vices. Al-Ghazali believed that love is the highest virtue and recommended the golden rule.
Ibn Tufayl wrote the philosophical romance Hayy the Son of Yaqzan that describes a spiritual life on an isolated island. Averroes (1126-1198) was a judge and a physician in Seville and Cordoba but is best known for his extensive commentaries on Aristotle. Averroes believed in the consensus of Islamic law but argued that the elite could benefit from philosophy. Nasir ad-Din Tusi (1201-1274) was a prominent Shi'i jurist. He wrote a comprehensive Islamic ethics in 1235. He adapted the psychology and virtues of the Greeks. His stages of ethical development indicate a spiritual progression and deep mysticism.
Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) was born at Cordoba into a Jewish family that fled religious persecution to Africa and Palestine before settling in Egypt. He worked as a physician and even treated Saladin. Maimonides wrote the Code of Laws (Mishna Torah) and a digest of the Palestinian Talmud. He is most famous for applying rational philosophy to Judaism in his Guide for the Perplexed. In this work he advised against starting with metaphysics, because it is too difficult; moral conduct is needed to moderate the passions of youth. He emphasized the value of prophecy. In ethics Maimonides recommended reducing desires and developing the intellectual faculties. Evils are only the relative opposites of true values such as life, health, wealth, and knowledge. God's creation is perfectly good, but the corporeal element contains the possibility of evil. In ignorance humans may harm themselves and others. He found that the most important precepts relate to learning and prayer. The son and grandson of Maimonides also wrote on ethics and were influenced by Sufism.
The Sufi Gilani (1077-1166) gave sermons on practical morality at Baghdad and distributed money he received to the poor. The mystical Persian philosopher Suhrawardi (1153-1191) was called the Master of Illumination. Orthodox jurists, who disliked his theosophical views, got Sultan Saladin to order him executed. 'Arabi (1165-1240) emphasized the imagination and the perpetual transformation that leads to union with the real. The first great Sufi poetry was written in The Enclosed Garden of Truth by Sana'i of Ghazna. He recommended selflessness and becoming a friend of poverty in order to find the knowledge of God. Sana'i interpreted the symbols in dreams. 'Attar traveled widely, wrote biographies of Sufi saints, and completed his allegorical Conference of the Birds in 1188. The Hoopoe teaches the other birds how they can find the true king by withdrawing from attachment to the world. They travel through the seven valleys of the quest, love, understanding, independence, unity, astonishment, and finally nothingness. In the Book of God (Ilahi-nama) 'Attar conveyed his mystical teachings in various stories that a caliph tells his six sons, who seek worldly pleasures and power.
Jalal al-Din Rumi (1207-1273) was influenced by 'Attar and succeeded his own father as a religious teacher at the Seljuk capital of Iconium in 1231. Rumi invented the circling movements of the whirling dervishes and wrote mystical love poetry. He wrote six books of tales in his Masnavi, and his talks were written down in the Discourses. Rumi urged his readers to be free and love God in all. He considered God the first cause of everything. He found the divine in the inner voice. Rumi believed love makes all things better. He described the lust for wealth as a chain of fears and anxieties. To the mystic "There is no God but God" really means "There