BECK index

Low Countries and Burgundy 1400-1453

by Sanderson Beck

Flanders under Burgundy 1400-53
Brabant, Liege and Guelders 1400-53
Holland, Hainault and Friesland 1400-53
Imitation of Christ

Flanders under Burgundy 1400-53

When France and England agreed on a 28-year truce in 1396, privileges of English merchants were restored. The problem of piracy prevented a treaty, and there were several English attacks on Flemish ships in 1402. In April 1403 the Duke had English merchandise at Sluis seized. The Four Members persuaded him to negotiate, and finally on January 10, 1407 they agreed on free trade in England and Flanders, excluding arms.

Duke Jean (r. 1404-19) was called “Fearless” because of his participation in the crusade at Nicopolis in 1396 that his father had financed. They were defeated by the Turks, who captured Jean and collected an enormous ransom from his father. In 1407 Jean allowed litigants in the council to communicate in their own language. During his conflict with the house of Orleans, the Four Members were reluctant to send Flemish troops and only sent a few in 1411. During Jean’s reign Flanders was relatively autonomous. When asked in July 1414, the Flemings refused to fight outside of Flanders. When the English invaded France in 1415, the towns favored the English and gave information on French troops to Henry V’s army. Some nobles fought for the French, and Duke Antoine of Brabant and the count of Namur were killed at Agincourt. At a peace conference on September 10, 1419 some Orleanists murdered Duke Jean in revenge for the 1407 assassination of Duke Louis of Orleans.

In response Jean’s successor, Philippe “the Good” (1419-67) formed an alliance with England’s Henry V in 1420. The next year Philippe bought Béthune and Namur, and he expanded the domains of Burgundy. He married Isabella of Portugal at Bruges in January 1430 and founded the Order of the Golden Fleece with 24 knights to preserve the ancient religion and defend the state. He was more active in Flemish affairs, and some rebelled. A peasant rebellion in Cassel began in 1427 and lasted four years. In 1429 the weavers tried to take over Ypres because the textile monopoly was not being enforced. People rioted in April 1430 against the bailiff and the aldermen’s corruption. That year Philippe inherited Brabant and Limburg, and in 1433 he acquired Hainault, Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. The weavers in Ghent led an uprising in 1432 that died down after the fullers’ plot was discovered in 1434. Philippe was able to issue coins that were legal currency throughout his vast dominions.

Duke Philippe made peace with France’s Charles VII at Arras on September 21, 1435, making England Flanders’ enemy again. In March 1436 Philippe made several concessions to the Flemings to get them to support France’s war against England, but this was the last time a combined Flemish militia would fight in a war. The siege of Calais began in July, but the English defeated the militias of Ghent and Bruges. The siege was lifted, and Humphrey of Gloucester arrived in August and ravaged western Flanders, proclaiming himself count of Flanders on August 15 at Poperinge, which he destroyed. The Bruges militia refused to disband until they were paid, and they seized the city on August 26. Ghent rebelled one week later and captured Philippe, releasing him for written concessions.

In May 1437 Philippe on his way to fight Holland blockaded Bruges, was nearly killed inside its gate, and gave its commercial privileges to Sluis. Bruges was isolated and made peace in February 1438 at Arras. The city had to pay a large indemnity of £480,000, and ten men were executed. Sluis became independent of Bruges, and the Council of Flanders, instead of Bruges, began making judicial decisions between towns. On September 29, 1439 the Treaty of Calais guaranteed safe conduct for merchants and English pilgrims and free commerce except for war materials. In 1440 Flanders gave the Duke a subsidy of £280,000. During the war the Dutch came into conflict with the Hanse towns, and in the spring of 1440 they captured the entire Hanse fleet. The next year they agreed on a truce for twelve years with the towns of Lübeck, Hamburg, Rostock, Stralsund, Wismar, and Lüneberg. Philippe purchased Luxembourg from Elisabeth of Bohemia in 1443, and their estates took an oath to him in 1451.

Philippe’s salt tax alienated Flemish towns, and the citizens of Ghent refused to pay. On June 4, 1451 Philippe provoked a conflict with Ghent by ordering their aldermen to dismiss his opponents from the magistracy. The three men were banished, and the following winter the commoners rebelled against the compliant aldermen. Philippe announced an embargo and ordered the rebels arrested. Like Bruges, Ghent fought alone. In the spring of 1452 Philippe invaded from Brabant and took over the northeast. Ghent appealed to King Charles VII, who forced Philippe to accept a six-week truce. However, Ghent rejected the treaty proposed by royal mediators in September. Philippe invaded Flanders with a large army and captured Gavere. Ghent met him with a force of 24,000 men including 7,000 English volunteers. On July 23, 1453 Ghent was defeated, and the city was fined £840,000.

Brabant, Liege and Guelders 1400-53

Johanna ruled Brabant 1383-1406. Then Antoine of Burgundy became the duke of Brabant, but he was killed fighting for the French at Agincourt in 1415 and was succeeded by 16-year-old Jan IV. Duke Jan IV van Brabant married Countess Jacoba of Hainault in 1418, but he allowed malfeasance by his favorites. His treasurer-general Willem van den Berg was murdered in 1419. Then his marshal Everhard Tserclaes became most favored, but Jacoba resented him for having transferred Holland and Zeeland to Johann of Bavaria. When Duke Jan assembled the states at Brussels in 1420, many did not appear. Those protesting the abuses met at Leuven and received aid from Jacoba. Mediation efforts failed, and Jan fled to Johann of Bavaria. Duke Philippe of Burgundy became regent and invited Jacoba back to Brussels. Duke Jan returned to his capital in January 1421 but had to make concessions. Gerard van der Zijpe led a popular movement. Jan’s brother Philippe of Saint-Pol became regent, and to please the guilds he had some nobles of Brabant beheaded on February 2, 1424. The Holland nobles were taken away as prisoners. Then Duke Jan IV was restored, but he depended on Philippe of Burgundy and Johann of Bavaria. In December 1425 Pope Martin V approved the founding of the University of Leuven. Citizens of Brussels did not want tumultuous students. Jan died suddenly in April 1427 and was succeeded by his brother Philippe of Saint-Pol, and he died in August 1430. His uncle Philippe of Burgundy was given sovereignty over Brabant, Limburg, and territories across the Meuse in October. When Elizabeth of Gorlitz died in August 1451, Philippe became duke of Luxembourg too.

Johann of Bavaria, bishop of Liege, was driven away a second time in 1403. Finally the revolt of 1406 besieged Maastricht and replaced him with Dirk van Horne. Duke Jean of Burgundy and Willem VI of Holland and Hainault came to Johann’s aid and defeated an army of 15,000 Liegois at Othee on September 23, 1408. Johann returned and even executed deputies sent to negotiate peace. Others were drowned or beheaded. The three princes ordered all charters examined, and many representatives were removed from office. The sovereign was to appoint bailiffs, and the bishop nominated sheriffs. In 1417 Emperor Sigismund visited Brabant and restored the privileges of the cities and provinces.

When the house of Orleans entered the war against England in 1401, Guelders changed to support the French. Wilhelm III of Guelders and Jülich died childless and was succeeded by his brother Reinald IV (r. 1402-23). He married Marie of Harcourt, daughter of France’s Charles V in 1405 and ceded the Lymers to Count Adolf of Cleves. In 1407 Reinald supported the Arkels against Duke Willem VI of Holland, but in 1409 Jan van Arkel was forced to give up the city of Gorkum to Reinald in exchange for large estates in the upper Betuwe. In 1412 Reinald sold Gorkum and the Arkels’ territory to Willem.

The estates of the nobles and cities took control of the succession in 1418 when Reinald was ill and childless, and in 1423 they elected Arnold of Egmont, the 13-year-old son of Johann of Egmont and Maria van Arkel. He accepted a council of sixteen nobles from the four quarters and increased the privileges of the estates in Guelders. Jülich chose Duke Adolf of Berg, who fought Arnold over Jülich and persuaded Emperor Sigismund to ban Arnold in July 1431. Their costly succession struggle lasted more than twenty years By 1436 the cities and nobles were no longer supporting Duke Arnold, and in 1441 he acceded to their demands. Adolf had died in 1437 and was succeeded by his son Gerhard, who was invested by Albrecht II with Berg, Jülich, Guelders and Zutphen. Friedrich III did not recognize Arnold in Guelders and Zutphen either. In 1443 Arnold and Cleves attacked Jülich, but they were defeated on November 3 near Linnich. Arnold fled and gave up his claim to Jülich. In 1449 Guelders forced him to accept a council of two nobles and two councilors from each of four cities.

Holland, Hainault and Friesland 1400-53

A treaty promised the rebelling Frisians peace on September 30, 1402. Amsterdam had received a new charter in 1400 that allowed them to elect their own council. Albrecht (r. 1388-1404) was succeeded by his oldest son Willem VI (r. 1404-17) of Holland, who favored the Hooks. Brunstyn van Herwijnen and Jan van Arkel V led the Cod opposition. Jan’s brother-in-law was duke of Guelders and Jülich, and they took over Gorkum. Villages and crops were devastated until a truce was proclaimed in 1407 for three years. Then fighting broke out again until peace was made at Wijk near Duurstede in 1412. The Frisians took back Staveren in 1414, and three years later Emperor Sigismund granted them a charter of independence.

Willem VI’s only child Jacoba (Jacqueline) was born on August 16, 1401. She married Duke Jean of Touraine in 1415, but he died on April 4, 1417, followed by her father on May 31. The 16-year-old countess faced a challenge by her uncle Johann III of Bavaria, bishop of Liege; but she was supported by the Hook party and defeated him in battle. The term “three estates” was used in 1417 to refer to the nobles, the clergy, and the cities. Her uncle and guardian, Duke Jean of Burgundy, arranged a papal dispensation for Jacoba to marry her cousin, Duke Jan IV van Brabant, and she did so on March 10, 1418. Emperor Sigismund declared the counties of Holland and Zeeland in default of male heirs and gave them to Johann III of Bavaria, who was invested as count at Dordrecht. The Hooks from Haarlem, Delft, and Leyden supported Jacoba and besieged Dordrecht. However, Johann of Bavaria with support from the Cods defeated her and was able to take Rotterdam and much of south Holland. On June 20 Johann proclaimed the right of free assemblies and mintage to the cities of Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, and Leyden. Duke Philippe of Burgundy mediated an agreement on February 19, 1419 that gave Dordrecht, Rotterdam, Gorkum, Leerdam, and other territories to Johann. All prisoners were freed without ransom except old Arkel at Zevenbergen. The Cod nobles held power, and their Hook rivals fled.

In 1420 Jan IV van Brabant mortgaged Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland to Johann for twelve years. Jan, who was younger than Jacoba, had a mistress and forced Jacoba to dismiss her Holland ladies. Jacoba went to England, where Henry V allowed her £100 a month. She fell in love with Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, but they had to appeal to the alternate Pope Benedict XIII to get her a divorce that was denounced by Pope Martin V. They were married by the end of 1422. Humphrey and Jacoba went to Hainault in November 1424 with 6,000 archers. Jan van Vliet was married to Jacoba’s sister, and he slowly poisoned Johann of Bavaria, who died on January 6, 1425. Humphrey avoided a challenge to single combat by Duke Philippe of Burgundy by returning to England in April. Jacoba was left under siege at Mons and wrote a letter to her husband asking him to save her, but the letter was intercepted by Philippe. She was handed over to Burgundy’s deputies and taken to Ghent, but she escaped disguised as a man to Antwerp. Philippe went to Holland, where many towns submitted to him. Jacoba was supported by Hooks and Utrecht and led her troops, winning a battle at Alfen on October 21, 1425.

Humphrey sent five hundred troops from England, but the fleet was destroyed off Browershaven by Philippe’s forces on January 13, 1426. Zeeland nobles were killed, and Jacoba lost that county. Towns supporting her were ordered to pay fines and a hearth tax, but the English Parliament granted her 20,000 marks. On February 27 Pope Martin V declared Jan’s marriage to Jacoba legal, but Jan died on April 14, 1427. The Pope declared Jacoba’s marriage to Humphrey illegal on January 9, 1428. After Henry V’s death Humphrey had become Lord Protector of his young nephew Henry VI, and Humphrey’s brother, the Duke of Bedford, had made a treaty for him with Philippe. Humphrey had been living with Eleanor Cobham for years and now married her.

On July 3, 1428 Jacoba and the Hooks accepted a reconciliation with Duke Philippe at Delft. On December 25 she surrendered her income from the states of Holland and Zeeland in exchange for an annuity and retained the title of countess. Holland was to be governed by nine counselors—three named by her and six by Philippe. All exiles were permitted to return. In November 1430 Philippe mortgaged the revenues of debt-ridden Holland and Zeeland for eight years to the Cod family of Borselen. Though a Cod stadholder appointed by Philippe, Frans van Borselen, supported Jacoba; they fell in love and were secretly married. When Philippe learned of this, he arrested Borselen in October. To save his life Jacoba renounced her titles to Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, and Hainault on April 12, 1433. Frans was released, and they were allowed to marry. Philippe appointed her grand forester of Holland, but she died of tuberculosis on October 8, 1436.

Captain Focco Ukena of Leer fought against the Vetkoopers and defeated Keno and Widzelt ten Broek in 1399 near Deeren, ending Holland’s hegemony across the Ems. Focco became a robber hero in Friesland and raided until he died in 1435. Coppen Jarges led the Schieringers who controlled Groningen, and he plundered the Ems region in 1413, destroying the sluices in Reiderland and causing the Ems to overflow and form the Dollart. Holland held the stronghold of Stavoren until 1414, when they lost it to the Frisians. The next year the Vetkoopers regained Groningen, and Keno could raid up to Stavoren.

Emperor Sigismund visited Friesland and sent officials to investigate. On September 30, 1417 he proclaimed Frisian liberties while claiming sovereignty and imposing a tax on every house. Willem VI of Holland died that year, and a peace made by Nicholas Buntzlow of Breslau in 1419 broke down the next year. Focco Ukena invaded from East Friesland and plundered the Westergoo, defeating the Schieringers, taking Stavoren, and killing Coppen Jarges. Johann III of Bavaria came to the aid of the Schieringers, and he drove the intruders back to East Friesland. Keno’s son Occo ten Broek tried to govern East Friesland; but in 1426 he was defeated and imprisoned for seven years before he died. In 1427 Focco Ukena issued his Willekeuren in order to govern by ancient customs. In 1434 the Jonker Edzard of Greetsiel and his brother Ulrich led the opposition to Focco, and after his death in 1435 they governed the territory across the Ems. At first the Hamburgers helped them but later they opposed them.

Imitation of Christ

The Brethren of the Common Life started the house of Florens in 1391, and in 1398 they added a house for poor clerks. They were approved by Utrecht’s bishop Frederick of Blankenheim in 1400, and two years later he approved the Modern Devout communities. Jan Brinckerinck (1359-1419) organized houses for women, and he insisted that they work or leave the house. The sisters stayed, and in 1401 and 1406 they bought more land. The Dominican Matthew of Grabow persisted in his criticism, but in 1417 the Council of Constance reprimanded him. In 1412 Groenendael joined the Windesheim congregation of canons, and by 1420 Henry Pomerius had written a brief history of the Groenendael community. In the 1420s Thomas a Kempis worked with novices at the St. Agnietenberg house. He wrote the “Dialog for Novices” and lives of the devoted. Dirk of Herxen was rector at Zwolle 1410-57, and starting in 1431 he invited all the Dutch houses of the Brethren of the Common Life to meet once a year to discuss issues and make decisions.

The father of Salome Sticken (1359-1449) was converted by one of Groote’s sermons, and she was prioress of the Lord Florens house for 37 years and wrote “A Way of Life for Sisters” and “Edifying Points of the Older Sisters.” The Modern Devout shared all their possessions, and they were called the “brothers and sisters of the common life.” They were not supported by the Church, but they worked for a living, often copying manuscripts and the women sewing. Those in the New Devout movement obeyed Church officials and doctrines, and they were rarely accused of heresy. They demonstrated humility and love and were encouraged to correct each other. They normally used the vernacular language in their meditations and reading of scripture. By 1460 they had 34 houses in the Netherlands. Those in the Modern Devotion emphasized living in Christ, praying, fasting, reading scripture, developing moral discipline, and practicing meditation on such themes as the passion of Jesus. Charitable love was the main goal, and they emphasized the heart more than the intellect. Purity of heart, humility, and obedience to the community’s way were important.

From the Modern Devotion movement came one of the most inspiring and popular books ever written in Europe, The Imitation of Christ. The authorship is not certain, but most scholars believe that it was probably written by Thomas a Kempis. He was born in 1379 or 1380, and in 1392 he joined his older brother Jan in the house of Deventer that Groote had founded. Thomas was guided by Florens Radewijns for seven years. After finishing school in 1399 he joined the Windesheim canons at the Agnietenberg monastery in Zwolle, where his brother Jan was prior. Thomas was ordained a priest in 1413. He was probably writing The Imitation of Christ about this time. He worked copying manuscripts, writing, and teaching novices for the next 58 years. During his life he copied the Bible four times. In 1425 he was elected sub-prior and began working as the master of novices. Thomas also wrote many other books including lives of Groote and Radewijns, Prayers and Meditations on the Life of Christ, Sermons to Novices, Spiritual Exercises, The Elevation of the Mind, The Soliloquy of the Soul, The Garden of Roses, The Compunction of the Heart, On Solitude and Silence, and On the Discipline of the Cloister. He died on July 25, 1471.

The first book of The Imitation of Christ is “Counsels on the Spiritual Life.” The spiritual teachings of Jesus and the Bible are often paraphrased or quoted, beginning with “He who follows me shall not walk in darkness.” (John 8:12) I too have selected some highlights from this book. All is vanity except loving and serving God. The author warned, “Those who follow only their natural inclinations defile their conscience and lose the grace of God.”1 The greater your knowledge the more severe will be God’s judgment on you unless your life is more holy. Happy are those who are instructed by Truth itself, not by signs and words. The person for whom all things are one and who sees everything as one can remain steadfast in heart and at peace with God.

The author asked, “What harms and hinders you more than the undisciplined passions of your own heart?”2 Our chief concern must be to conquer self and by growing stronger than the self every day to advance in holiness. If people were as diligent in uprooting vices and planting virtues as they are in debating problems, there would be fewer evils and scandals. The truly great are great in the love of God, and they are humble and regard worldly honors as nothing. Be guided by one who is better than yourself rather than follow your own opinions. The worldly person given to outward affairs does not have peace in the heart. Trust God more than yourself. Do what you can, and God will bless your good intentions.

 

Do not esteem yourself better than others,

lest you appear worse in the eyes of God,

who alone knows the heart of man.3

 

Esteeming yourself above others does you great harm. True peace is in the heart of the humble. People do what they like and like those who think as they do. “But if God is to dwell among us, we must sometimes yield our own opinion for the sake of peace.”4 How can anyone be at peace who meddles in the affairs of others? If we die completely to self, we shall be free from inner conflict, savor spiritual things, and experience heavenly contemplation. Encountering even a little trouble quickly discourages us; but if we stand firm in the struggle, we shall experience the help of God.

Old habits are hard to give up, and conquering our own will is even harder. Yet encountering troubles and adversity occasionally are good for us because they cause us to search our own heart. The person who avoids only the outward evils without uprooting them in oneself gains little.

 

Judge yourself, and beware of passing judgment on others.

In judging others, we expend our energy to no purpose;

we are often mistaken and easily sin.

But if we judge ourselves, our labor is always to our profit.5

 

Loving much and doing well is doing much, and serving the community before one’s own interests is doing well. What one cannot correct in oneself or others should be borne patiently until God ordains otherwise. When obstacles confront you, pray to God for help and for the grace to endure them with a good heart. If you cannot mold your own behavior, how can you expect others to do what you like? Times of trouble show the true worth of a person. “Man proposes, but God disposes.”6

“In the morning form your intention, and at night examine your conduct.”7 Love solitude and silence, and live an inward and spiritual life by drawing away from the crowd. Those most esteemed are often in the greatest danger because they have too much confidence in themselves. “Watch yourself at all times, and correct yourself before you correct your friends.”8 Human happiness does not consist in the abundance of worldly goods, for a modest share is sufficient. Those who are devoted to Christ pay little heed to bodily pleasures nor to prosperity, for their hopes are directed to eternal things. “You will never overcome your vices unless you discipline yourself severely.”9

Order every thought and action as if you were to die today. If you do not care for your own soul, who will care for you in the time to come? Every vice receives its proper retribution. The proud will be subjected to humiliation, and the greedy will experience misery and want. If you devote yourself to prayer, you will find great peace.

 

Your evenings will always be tranquil

if you have spent the day well.

Watch yourself, bestir yourself, admonish yourself;

and whatever others do, never neglect your own soul.

The stricter you are with yourself,

the greater is your spiritual progress.10

 

The second book of The Imitation of Christ is “Counsels on the Inner Life.” Trust God completely. All things pass, even yourself. Do not cling to them lest you become entangled and perish. The inward lover of truth is free from inordinate desires and so can rise above the self and turn freely to God and rest joyfully in God. Whoever walks by an inner light is not unduly influenced by outward things and needs no special time or place to pray. When a person humbly admits one’s faults, others are appeased and may be reconciled. Whoever is truly at peace thinks evil of no one, but the discontented and restless are tormented by numerous suspicions. Whoever knows the secret of enduring will enjoy the greatest peace. “Such a one is conqueror of self, master of the world, a friend of Christ, and an heir of Heaven.”11

 

If your heart be right,

then every created thing will become for you

a mirror of life and a book of holy teaching.

For there is nothing created so small and mean

that it does not reflect the goodness of God.12

 

We are too quick to resent and feel

what we suffer from others,

but fail to consider how much others suffer from us.

Whoever considers his own defects fully and honestly

will find no reason to judge others harshly.13

 

If you truly desire peace and union with God, then pay attention to yourself and set everything else aside. A quiet conscience can endure much and remain joyful in trouble, but an evil conscience is always fearful and uneasy. If you are concerned with what you are inwardly, you will not mind what people say to you; for people look at the outward appearance, but God sees into your heart. People see your actions, but God knows your motives. The more completely a person dies to oneself, the more one begins to live to God.

Book Three “On Inward Consolation” is a dialog between a disciple and Christ. The first chapter describes how Christ speaks inwardly to the soul.

 

Blessed are those who enter deeply into inner things

and daily prepare themselves

to receive the secrets of heaven.

Blessed are those who strive

to devote themselves wholly to God

and free themselves

from all the entanglements of the world.

Consider these things, O my soul,

and shut fast the doors against the desires of the senses,

that you may hear

what the Lord your God speaks within you.14

 

The disciple says that God inspires and enlightens prophets, who preach the word but cannot bestow the spirit. They instruct, and God opens the understanding. Christ has taught the prophets from the beginning of the world and continues to speak to people today. The disciple prays for grace, and Christ answers that grace comes from humility. Christ says that God is the true end, and the disciple finds joy in serving God. One must control the heart and learn patience. Bearing sorrows and enduring injuries is proof of patience.

The disciple realizes that as long as one esteems outward things rather than the infinite and eternal Good, one will remain mean and earth-bound. The wisdom of the devout is different than the knowledge of a learned scholar. Christ says, “Complete self-denial is the only road to perfect liberty.”15 Christ speaks to the disciple,

 

For love of God, cheerfully endure everything—

labor, sorrow, temptation, provocation, anxiety,

necessity, weakness, injury and insult, censure,

humiliation, disgrace, contradiction and contempt.16

 

Christ also advises,

 

Take great care to ensure that

in every place, action, and outward occupation

you remain inwardly free and your own master.

Control circumstances, and do not allow them to control you.

Only so can you be master and ruler of your actions,

not their servant or slave,

a free man and a true Christian, enjoying the freedom

and high destiny of the children of God.

These stand above the things of time,

and view those of eternity,

seeing in their true light both earthly and heavenly things.17

 

The disciple must learn for the love of the Creator, to overcome self in everything in order to know God. “So long as anything, however small, occupies too much of your love and regard, it injures the soul and holds you back from attaining the highest Good.”18 Do not believe everything you hear, but put your trust entirely in God. Burdens must be borne to win eternal life. Christ explains that nature and grace are opposed. Nature acts for its own gain and interest, hoping to gain some reward. “Grace seeks no worldly return and asks for no reward but God alone.”19

The short fourth book of The Imitation of Christ is “On the Blessed Sacrament,” and the disciple prays to God to receive the Christ.

 

Notes

The Brethren of the Common Life started the house of Florens in 1391, and in 1398 they added a house for poor clerks. They were approved by Utrecht’s bishop Frederick of Blankenheim in 1400, and two years later he approved the Modern Devout communities. Jan Brinckerinck (1359-1419) organized houses for women, and he insisted that they work or leave the house. The sisters stayed, and in 1401 and 1406 they bought more land. The Dominican Matthew of Grabow persisted in his criticism, but in 1417 the Council of Constance reprimanded him. In 1412 Groenendael joined the Windesheim congregation of canons, and by 1420 Henry Pomerius had written a brief history of the Groenendael community. In the 1420s Thomas a Kempis worked with novices at the St. Agnietenberg house. He wrote the “Dialog for Novices” and lives of the devoted. Dirk of Herxen was rector at Zwolle 1410-57, and starting in 1431 he invited all the Dutch houses of the Brethren of the Common Life to meet once a year to discuss issues and make decisions.
The father of Salome Sticken (1359-1449) was converted by one of Groote’s sermons, and she was prioress of the Lord Florens house for 37 years and wrote “A Way of Life for Sisters” and “Edifying Points of the Older Sisters.” The Modern Devout shared all their possessions, and they were called the “brothers and sisters of the common life.” They were not supported by the Church, but they worked for a living, often copying manuscripts and the women sewing. Those in the New Devout movement obeyed Church officials and doctrines, and they were rarely accused of heresy. They demonstrated humility and love and were encouraged to correct each other. They normally used the vernacular language in their meditations and reading of scripture. By 1460 they had 34 houses in the Netherlands. Those in the Modern Devotion emphasized living in Christ, praying, fasting, reading scripture, developing moral discipline, and practicing meditation on such themes as the passion of Jesus. Charitable love was the main goal, and they emphasized the heart more than the intellect. Purity of heart, humility, and obedience to the community’s way were important.
From the Modern Devotion movement came one of the most inspiring and popular books ever written in Europe, The Imitation of Christ. The authorship is not certain, but most scholars believe that it was probably written by Thomas a Kempis. He was born in 1379 or 1380, and in 1392 he joined his older brother Jan in the house of Deventer that Groote had founded. Thomas was guided by Florens Radewijns for seven years. After finishing school in 1399 he joined the Windesheim canons at the Agnietenberg monastery in Zwolle, where his brother Jan was prior. Thomas was ordained a priest in 1413. He was probably writing The Imitation of Christ about this time. He worked copying manuscripts, writing, and teaching novices for the next 58 years. During his life he copied the Bible four times. In 1425 he was elected sub-prior and began working as the master of novices. Thomas also wrote many other books including lives of Groote and Radewijns, Prayers and Meditations on the Life of Christ, Sermons to Novices, Spiritual Exercises, The Elevation of the Mind, The Soliloquy of the Soul, The Garden of Roses, The Compunction of the Heart, On Solitude and Silence, and On the Discipline of the Cloister. He died on July 25, 1471.

The first book of The Imitation of Christ is “Counsels on the Spiritual Life.” The spiritual teachings of Jesus and the Bible are often paraphrased or quoted, beginning with “He who follows me shall not walk in darkness.” (John 8:12) I too have selected some highlights from this book. All is vanity except loving and serving God. The author warned, “Those who follow only their natural inclinations defile their conscience and lose the grace of God.”1 The greater your knowledge the more severe will be God’s judgment on you unless your life is more holy. Happy are those who are instructed by Truth itself, not by signs and words. The person for whom all things are one and who sees everything as one can remain steadfast in heart and at peace with God.

The author asked, “What harms and hinders you more than the undisciplined passions of your own heart?”2 Our chief concern must be to conquer self and by growing stronger than the self every day to advance in holiness. If people were as diligent in uprooting vices and planting virtues as they are in debating problems, there would be fewer evils and scandals. The truly great are great in the love of God, and they are humble and regard worldly honors as nothing. Be guided by one who is better than yourself rather than follow your own opinions. The worldly person given to outward affairs does not have peace in the heart. Trust God more than yourself. Do what you can, and God will bless your good intentions.

Do not esteem yourself better than others,
lest you appear worse in the eyes of God,
who alone knows the heart of man.3

Esteeming yourself above others does you great harm. True peace is in the heart of the humble. People do what they like and like those who think as they do. “But if God is to dwell among us, we must sometimes yield our own opinion for the sake of peace.”4 How can anyone be at peace who meddles in the affairs of others? If we die completely to self, we shall be free from inner conflict, savor spiritual things, and experience heavenly contemplation. Encountering even a little trouble quickly discourages us; but if we stand firm in the struggle, we shall experience the help of God.

Old habits are hard to give up, and conquering our own will is even harder. Yet encountering troubles and adversity occasionally are good for us because they cause us to search our own heart. The person who avoids only the outward evils without uprooting them in oneself gains little.

Judge yourself, and beware of passing judgment on others.
In judging others, we expend our energy to no purpose;
we are often mistaken and easily sin.
But if we judge ourselves, our labor is always to our profit.5

Loving much and doing well is doing much, and serving the community before one’s own interests is doing well. What one cannot correct in oneself or others should be borne patiently until God ordains otherwise. When obstacles confront you, pray to God for help and for the grace to endure them with a good heart. If you cannot mold your own behavior, how can you expect others to do what you like? Times of trouble show the true worth of a person. “Man proposes, but God disposes.”6

“In the morning form your intention, and at night examine your conduct.”7 Love solitude and silence, and live an inward and spiritual life by drawing away from the crowd. Those most esteemed are often in the greatest danger because they have too much confidence in themselves. “Watch yourself at all times, and correct yourself before you correct your friends.”8 Human happiness does not consist in the abundance of worldly goods, for a modest share is sufficient. Those who are devoted to Christ pay little heed to bodily pleasures nor to prosperity, for their hopes are directed to eternal things. “You will never overcome your vices unless you discipline yourself severely.”9

Order every thought and action as if you were to die today. If you do not care for your own soul, who will care for you in the time to come? Every vice receives its proper retribution. The proud will be subjected to humiliation, and the greedy will experience misery and want. If you devote yourself to prayer, you will find great peace.

Your evenings will always be tranquil
if you have spent the day well.
Watch yourself, bestir yourself, admonish yourself;
and whatever others do, never neglect your own soul.
The stricter you are with yourself,
the greater is your spiritual progress.10

The second book of The Imitation of Christ is “Counsels on the Inner Life.” Trust God completely. All things pass, even yourself. Do not cling to them lest you become entangled and perish. The inward lover of truth is free from inordinate desires and so can rise above the self and turn freely to God and rest joyfully in God. Whoever walks by an inner light is not unduly influenced by outward things and needs no special time or place to pray. When a person humbly admits one’s faults, others are appeased and may be reconciled. Whoever is truly at peace thinks evil of no one, but the discontented and restless are tormented by numerous suspicions. Whoever knows the secret of enduring will enjoy the greatest peace. “Such a one is conqueror of self, master of the world, a friend of Christ, and an heir of Heaven.”11

If your heart be right,
then every created thing will become for you
a mirror of life and a book of holy teaching.
For there is nothing created so small and mean
that it does not reflect the goodness of God.12

We are too quick to resent and feel
what we suffer from others,
but fail to consider how much others suffer from us.
Whoever considers his own defects fully and honestly
will find no reason to judge others harshly.13

If you truly desire peace and union with God, then pay attention to yourself and set everything else aside. A quiet conscience can endure much and remain joyful in trouble, but an evil conscience is always fearful and uneasy. If you are concerned with what you are inwardly, you will not mind what people say to you; for people look at the outward appearance, but God sees into your heart. People see your actions, but God knows your motives. The more completely a person dies to oneself, the more one begins to live to God.

Book Three “On Inward Consolation” is a dialog between a disciple and Christ. The first chapter describes how Christ speaks inwardly to the soul.

Blessed are those who enter deeply into inner things
and daily prepare themselves
to receive the secrets of heaven.
Blessed are those who strive
to devote themselves wholly to God
and free themselves
from all the entanglements of the world.
Consider these things, O my soul,
and shut fast the doors against the desires of the senses,
that you may hear
what the Lord your God speaks within you.14

The disciple says that God inspires and enlightens prophets, who preach the word but cannot bestow the spirit. They instruct, and God opens the understanding. Christ has taught the prophets from the beginning of the world and continues to speak to people today. The disciple prays for grace, and Christ answers that grace comes from humility. Christ says that God is the true end, and the disciple finds joy in serving God. One must control the heart and learn patience. Bearing sorrows and enduring injuries is proof of patience.

The disciple realizes that as long as one esteems outward things rather than the infinite and eternal Good, one will remain mean and earth-bound. The wisdom of the devout is different than the knowledge of a learned scholar. Christ says, “Complete self-denial is the only road to perfect liberty.”15 Christ speaks to the disciple,

For love of God, cheerfully endure everything—
labor, sorrow, temptation, provocation, anxiety,
necessity, weakness, injury and insult, censure,
humiliation, disgrace, contradiction and contempt.16

Christ also advises,

Take great care to ensure that
in every place, action, and outward occupation
you remain inwardly free and your own master.
Control circumstances, and do not allow them to control you.
Only so can you be master and ruler of your actions,
not their servant or slave,
a free man and a true Christian, enjoying the freedom
and high destiny of the children of God.
These stand above the things of time,
and view those of eternity,
seeing in their true light both earthly and heavenly things.17

The disciple must learn for the love of the Creator, to overcome self in everything in order to know God. “So long as anything, however small, occupies too much of your love and regard, it injures the soul and holds you back from attaining the highest Good.”18 Do not believe everything you hear, but put your trust entirely in God. Burdens must be borne to win eternal life. Christ explains that nature and grace are opposed. Nature acts for its own gain and interest, hoping to gain some reward. “Grace seeks no worldly return and asks for no reward but God alone.”19

The short fourth book of The Imitation of Christ is “On the Blessed Sacrament,” and the disciple prays to God to receive the Christ.

Notes

1. The Imitation of Christ by Thomas a Kempis tr. Leo Sherley-Price, 1:1, p. 28.
2. Ibid., 1:3, p. 31.
3. Ibid., 1:7, p. 34.
4. Ibid., 1:9, p. 36.
5. Ibid., 1:14, p. 42.
6. Ibid., 1:19, p. 48.
7. Ibid., 1:19, p. 49.
8. Ibid., 1:21, p. 53.
9. Ibid., 1:22, p. 56.
10. Ibid., 1:25, p. 66.
11. Ibid., 2:3, p. 71.
12. Ibid., 2:4, p. 72.
13. Ibid., 2:5, p. 73.
14. Ibid., 3:1, p. 91.
15. Ibid., 3:32, p. 137.
16. Ibid., 3:35, p. 141.
17. Ibid., 3:38, p. 144.
18. Ibid., 3:42: p. 149.
19. Ibid., 3:54, p. 170.

Copyright © 2009 by Sanderson Beck

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